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Tapping Earth's
Geothermal Energy:
"Green " Panacea
Or Pandora's Box?
Asante Riverwind
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Tapping Earth's Geothermal Energy: "Green" Panacea Or Pandora's Box?
Asante Riverwind
l ime by nature is as a river,always in fluid transition.Did any who lived across these lands
centuries ago wonder,as they enjoyed nature's beautiful bounty,at the changes yet to come?Could any
then have foreseen changes as locally and globally dramatic as have come to be?*hat changes will
emerge a century or more hence,if current societal growth and demands continue to rise?What
unforeseen dramas hide amidst future's obscuring mists?
Human population and demands upon Faith's natural resources continue tq grow exponentially.
Our impacts are altering not only once natural open lands around us,but interwoven climatic and
ecological systems worldwide. Scientific and societal concerns over resource depllrti9n and the early
manifestations of global warming are rising.Desires for energy sources that allow.both continued growth
and global ecological well-being have led to a quest for"green"energy solutions.Across the earth, people
are searching for ecologically acceptable energy production sources to augment or replace today's
reliance on harmful oil and coal fossil fuels.
Proposed as a future source to meet the region's growing energy needs,geothermal production
brings both potential energy and economic benefits as well as ecological and healtih harms.Geothermal
energy is not a new phenomenon.It has been used where naturally existent,perhaps throughout the
evolution of our species. From ancient empires to tribal peoples,geothermal hot sPirings have long been
used for bathing,heating,and cooking.Not only humans but other species,including monkeys in Asia,
use geothermal energy.Literally meaning"earth heat,"it is Ihund naturally in hot water and steam rising
from magma heated rocks below earth's surface.
localized use of naturally flowing hot springs and steam continues globally from Asia to Iceland
to Oregon. Klamath Falls and 13reitenbush communities use geothermal fluids to beat homes,buildings,
and greenhouses,as well as for rejuvenating spas.Circulating geothermal waters beneath the sidewalks of
Klamath Falls melts snow and ice.On this scale,employing natural flows, geothermal's ecological
impacts are benign or even beneficial.
Tapping geothermal steam to produce electrical energy is reported to have first begun at Laredo.
Italy in 1904,and continues there today.Since then geothermal electrical energy production has spread to
1 nations across the world_ US geothermal plants exist in California,Hawaii, Utah,and Nevada. I IS
production capabilities range from a few hundred kilowatts to over 130 megawatts, with an estimated total
capacity of 3,200 megawatts—which industry claims equals the production of three nuclear power plants.
Geothermal energy production utilizes natural heating in the earth, most accessible along active
fault lines, such as the Pacific Rim's volcanic earthquake-prone "Ring of l'ilrc," which includes the
Cascade Mountains. Not dependent on natural surface springs, it employs wells drilled thousands of feet
into the earth, tapping into hydrothermal fluids and reservoirs. Using pumps and closed loop system
pipes, hydrothermal fluids are most often used to heat more efficient secondary liluids, such as flammable
isohutane, which then spin turbines, producing electricity. Contained within} system pipes, cooling
geothermal fluids are usually reinjected hack into the earth. Geothermal is glowingly touted by industry as
a sustainable renewable energy source, with water replenished by r'a.in.falI and hat perpetually produced
by the earth. Citing polluting emissions produced by fossil fuel plants, ominous dangers inherent in
nuclear energy, and the ecologically harmful consequences of hydropower dam$, geothermal proponents
claim by comparison that it is an ecologically responsible "green" energy source. 1{_owe ver, most
genlherma.I advocates have vested financial interests that perhaps filter their vision, accounting .too
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discrepancies and omissions from the realities of geothermal's track record - which is not without its
environmental and human health harms.
Among early indications of'inherent problems, abrasive particles and corrosive impurities
impaired pipes and turbines, causing failure of the first US geothermal production attempt at Geysers,
California in 1922. Geothermal fluids and steams are far from "pure"or"safe." Water,percolating and
pooling beneath earth's surface, contacts hot rocks heated by magma deep in the earth. Minerals, metals,
and gases from deposits below surface mix with heating waters, brewing a geothermal brine containing
toxic gases, impurities,and heavy metals similar to those found in rock tailings from mining.
Geothermal's highly toxic contaminants include hydrogen sulfide,arsenic,boron, benzene. various forms
of ammonia, radon-222, vanadium, and mercury,among others.
During"normal"production operations, toxic fluids are contained in pipes, reinjected into deep
earth reservoirs, and not released as atmospheric,soil,or water polluting emissio'ns. However, during
initial geothermal exploration,plant construction,expansions,periodic routine maintenance and repairs,
as well as"non-normal"incidents and accidents—toxic emissions regularly occur unabated for extended
periods. During drilling and testing toxic muds,oils,and geothermal bines are collected as sludge in
sumps on site, Containing numerous toxins and heavy metals, sludges pose a danger to workers,
underground aquifers,area streams and lakes, as well as area vegetation, wildlife, and aquatic species.
Well blowouts are another source of unabated emissions. Efforts to stop emissions from blowouts have
proven unsuccessful, and have resulted in continuous venting of hydrogen surd and other dangerous
gases, pollutants,and particulates. While hydrogen sulfide changes in approxim•tely 12 to 18 hours
through oxidation to sulfur dioxide,both forms are hazardous to plant and anim life. Regulations for
permissible levels of these sulfides,and other toxins, allow emission levels Many times higher than
harmful, Workers at geothennal plants in California have reported serious health harms from exposure to
geothermal toxins, including heart attacks, respiratory ailments,liver and other internal organ damage,
and a range of lesser impacts including nausea,rashes,nose bleeds,dizziness,bronchitis and other
problems, some of which have also been reported by area residents,
A five year study by Livermore National Laboratory on geothermal production impacts in the
Salton Sea area concluded:"the Salton Sea will turn even saltier,the air will be polluted with noxious
gases, the valley will sink due to hot brines drawn up from underground,and inadvertently spilling of salt
fluids onto surrounding farmlands." A publication by the Northwest Power Planning Council titled "New
Resources Supply Curves and Environmental Effects"(Feb, 1989) states: "Impacts of production affect
air and groundwater, Hydrogen sulfide,a toxic substance with the odor of rotten eggs is produced,
although it can apparently be controlled. Mercury, boron, and radon gases appe in trace amounts and
ammonia,methane,carbon dioxide, and argon result from the air injector systen and the cooling system.
Recently reports from California say that whole crops have been destroyed by p riodic emissions from
geothermal plants. The airborne emissions have fallen on crops destroying the clops and contaminating
the ground."In another study, the California Energy Commission concluded that acid rain and boron salts
from geothermal production spread over considerable distances,resulting in vegetation losses to native
trees.
Scientists with the US Geological Survey concluded geothermal product"on induces seismic
activity.The tapping of geothermal reservoirs depletes subsurface pressure buildup, while reinjection of
spent fluids is done at different surface levels and locations, altering pressure p• erns,which is thought to
he the cause of plate shifts. Plants at both Mammoth Lakes and Geysers Califor ia;have experienced
minor quakes ranging up to 3.5 or 4 on the Richter scale, with the Mammoth La es having"swarms of
quakes."Notable land subsidence has also been recorded in areas above geothe . al production reservoirs.
Pipe systems, spill containment basins, and sludge sumps are at risk of rupture d e'to frequent quake
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activity,and must be monitored, again posing risks to aquifers and waterways.;Reinjection of geothermal
fluids has the potential to contaminate underground aquifers.
Geothermal's industrial plant complexes cover large areas,including bines,power transmission
lines,weilfields,sumps and football field sized dump ponds at each well site, 3 foot diameter pipelines,
and injection wells, Exploration,construction,and continuous operation gener to incessant noise, smells,
and irretrievably alter the natural qualities of wherever they are located.
Elsewhere in the world, geothermal's record has also produced environmental harms,with reports
of toxic atmospheric emissions,harmful health impacts,water pollution,and damaged crops and fisheries.
Citizen activists from California to the Philippines are fighting geothermal plants. However,discovering
information raising questions about geothermal's environmental track record is difficult with web
searches flooded by industry sites.
Reviewing the wide varieties and impacts of geothermal production els where,technological
development,and possibilities inherent in our region,we can assess the impac s of different types of
geothermal energy production upon our natural environment,communities,an quality of life. Questions
needing to be addressed include: who is the power for and at what risk? Curre tly geothermal industries
have proposed plants at Newberry Monument near Bend,on the slopes of Mt. efferson on Warm Springs,
and near Lakeview, among other possibilities. Electrical power produced by t se plants would primarily
go to California,not the area where plants are proposed,as costs of geotherma production are still unable
to compete with hydropower from dams. However, as fossil fuels become scaree,and concerns for
ecologically sustainable energy production sources grow,geothermal speculators hope to cash in,
acquiring"green energy" status, subsidies,and investments.
At this point,weighing environmental harms and risks,large scale geothermal electrical
production cannot accurately claim to be ecologically "green." Reports that it lowly depletes geothermal
reservoir resources over twenty or more years indicate that it cannot be consid red truly sustainable at
least not at production levels that require pumping hydrothermal fluids at volu nes in excess of 300,000
gallons an hour, such as at Mammoth Lakes. On a small scale,as used at Klamath Lakes, Brientenbush
and elsewhere across the world, geothermal is a welcome natural addition to thermal energy needs. On a
large scale, the technology needs to correct its environmental harms and be hejd truthfully accountable to
the ecological well-being of affected communities.
Ultimately, we need to address the root causes of contemporary global societies insatiable
demands. More than"sustainable energy sources,"we need sustainable humat societies - with
ecologically sustainable limits on growth and consumption. Populations cannot continue to exponentially
grow without disastrous consequences to the quality of life for us all.By reign ng in growth,converting to
ecologically appropriate and energy efficient structures, building materials,lif -styles, and resource use,
as an informed community we can best ensure an ecologically viable future for the generations yet to
come.
Informed Democracy
In addressing the growing societal demands for energy development, allusions to geothermal"s
purported"green"energy, political energy development agendas and legislaticn,and the growing number
of geothermal exploration and development plans proposed by economically motivated commercial
ventures; it is helpful to become fully informed regarding geothermal energy exploration and production
environmental, agricultural,community,and worker safety and health impacts.The following compilation
of research information on the impacts of'geothermal energy was first comple'ed in 1990, while working
,v id., zt consortium of c;on',,rt.arion interest., including Greeopcace and Puget, ouid area ecological
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activists. Recent(2007-08)consultation and review by geothermal proponents has v-ri fled that the same
basic technologies, impacts,issues and concerns remain accurate and pertinent to g-'thermal projects
L.
operating and/or being proposed today.Additionally,the original report has been up�ated to incorporate
more recent geothermal issues,including issues associated with Oregon's Newberry]exploration project of
2008. With informed citizen involvement,and adherence to democratic process,co munit.ies allected by
proposed and existing geothermal production can best assess the.prospects and cons•quences of
geothermal energy development, arriving at informed decisions that uphold the pub ic's best long-term
interests and protect the natural heritage of those here today,including Earth's man imperiled species,as
well as those yet to he horn.
Environmental Impacts& Methods of Commercial-Scale Geothermal Energy Production
Geothermal power production extracts heated fluids or dry steam by means c'rf wells tapping into
heated reservoirs and rocks within the earth. The heated fluid is used to drive turbi es,generating
electricity.' They type and temperature of geothermal reservoirs varies,each often omcwhat unique to its
own area." Temperatures of reservoirs utilized for electrical production range from 120°C'to above 260°
C.'° Fluids from these reservoirs can he in the form of dry steam or hot brines or w ter. Geothermal
fluids varying compositions of toxins and heavy metals,are the primary source of g•othennal energy
production's environmental problems and challenges. Geothermal production meth ids and processes
most oten involve atmospheric emissions,condensation drift from cooling towers, aStewater,sludge,
and reinjection of geothermal effluent—all containing various amounts of dangerou toxins.'"
Basic geothermal electrical generation processes consist of:dry steam,singl flash,double flash,
and binary cycle power plants. The type of geothermal fluids and the degree of tcmPeraturc in part
determine the typed of plant utilized."
Dry steam:Geothermal reservoirs comprised of dry steam are geologically rare'It is this type
however,where electrical power generation from geothermal fluids began; in 1904 t C.ardarcllo,Italy.'
Within the U.S.geothermal energy production began in 1955 at the"Geysers"loeat'd in California_ At
the time of this report, 1990, these were still the only dry steam reservoirs commere ally generating
electricity with the U.S.v" Geysers area geothermal resources and energy produCtio have been the locus
of significant research and ongoing study. In the dry steam method wells tap the st am sending it through
a"rock catcher"and afterwards into a turbine. To increase efficiency a vacuum is rutted at the turbine's
exhaust by means of condensers. Cooling towers arc used for the spent steam,with the collected
condensation injected back into the reservoir.°"'
Single.flash: Designed for geothermal reservoirs with water temperatures in c cess of 220°C,these
utilize wells,directing water"production separators," The pressures within the sep ators are kept at a
lower level causing .15 to 20%of the hot fluid to flash into steam. From here the st am travels through
scrubbers to power the turbine. Cooling towers and condensers are utilized similar to dry steam.
Condensate and fluid from the separator is collected and reinjected into the geothermal reservoir.'
Double flash: Ibis method is similar to the single flash system but,as its ram implies, flashes the
fluid into steam a second time at a lower pressure, maximizing the energy products n potential of the
geothermal fluid. As with the single flash system the excess fluids are collected an reinjected.'
Binary cycle:This method does not use the geothermal fluid directly to power he turbine(s)as do the
others. Instead,it directs the fluid through a heat exchanger where a secondary flu d is flashed into steam,
Called the"working fluid",the secondary fluid is usually isobutane or freon(or si ilarlderivative fluids)
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—due to the low boiling point of these substances. It is the"working fluid"whit powers the turbine.
The geothermal fluid remains enclosed within pipes and is reinjected into the res rvoir.'" During normal
operations this type of plant does not expose the geothermal brine to the air. Con equently there is
reported to be little harmful atmospheric emissions, liquid,or sludge wastes from this part of the binary
production process_6' industry sources tout it as being ecologically clean and in 'cafe that future
geothermal plants may employ these methods. f.lowever,atmospheric emissions till result during initial
exploration drilling and well testing.Additionally,variances from emissions req rements may be needed
during routine periodic maintenance and/or plant expansion,etc. Problems with s stem malfunctions and
leaking pipes exist as well.
Flammable Leaks
The"working fluid"within the pipes,such as isobutane, is regulated with"permissible"levels for loss
due to"fugitive" leaks. At the time ol'this writing,an allowable limit of 250 lbs./day has been
established,with leaks of up to 10,000 parts per million(ppm)permitted before r pairs are required to be
initiated to fix the leak_ Plant operators are allowed 15 days for repair completio before further reporting
is required. Meanwhile operations can continue,despite unchecked leaking fluid•,'''
Leak detection is required on a monthly basis. Isobutane is highly flammable.'In March, 1990,
isobutane in a piping system at the Mammoth Lakes California plant ignited. Iwo workers conducting
maintenance on the system were burned—one severely. The resulting tire burned for 16 hours. Fire
suppression efforts involved fire-lighting personnel from six different agencies.Preliminary government
and industry investigations determined no safety violations had occurred."° The-ire apparently was
determined to be part of normal operations, with the plant meeting the requirements of permit regulations.
allowing profitable energy production to continue relatively unabated.
I he binary method of geothermal production was initially developed for use where reservoir fluid
temperatures were low,requiring working fluids with a low boiling point,such as isobutane,Freon,etc.
Binary,with its enclosed piping system,heat exchanger,and secondary fluids can be more costly to
design and finance than other systems. In the economic profit/cost motivated energy production industry
there are no guarantees that more costly methods,designs,and equipment—allo ing greater
environmental protection and community/worker safety-will be utilized when I ss resource and time-
costly methods are available. With the differing temperatures and composition of geothermal reservoirs,
less maintenance intensive,or technologically more feasible methods may be utilized due to high heat,
large quantities of particulate mutter.or corrosive fluids.
Geothermal's Toxic Tea
The corrosive nature of geothermal fluids,particularly their effect on vari',us metals, initially
challenged technological capabilities and delayed exploitation,of geothermal as• energy source.
( eothermal fluids contain varied chemical substances; some highly toxic such as hydrogen sulfide,
arsenic,and mercuiy—among others. Geothermal reservoirs are located in tecto iically active areas
where fissures exist beneath the surface of the earth. Precipitation pooling helo the surface is heated by
contact with hot rocks below,which are in turn heated by magma. Minerals,me . Is,and gases from
deposits below the surface, mix with waters forming the composition of the gent canal brine or steam.
11w Jnl/nwing,' is a lot of geothermal pollutants, their various threshold limits anc'the toxicological
c'l/ec!
Health 'Effects of Air Pollutants from Geothermal Development
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Ammonia (N1I3). Odor threshold: 5.2 ppm(Amoore et al, 1983); I:ye irritation: 5 ppm(NIOS1.1, 1974),
72 ppm(industrial Rio-lest I.abs, 1973);Inhalation irritation: 20 ppm(EPA, 1977); Nasal irritation: 32
ppm;Chest imitation : 134 ppm (Industrial Rio-Test Labs, 1973); Increased m.or-bic.ity and mortality: 70-
105 ppm(l3ittersohl, 1971); Pulmonary edema: 1,700-4,500 mg/m3. Low levels: no permanent adverse
health el lecis(EPA, 1977). Leaf damage in sensitive plats: 8 12 ppm for 4 hours(Benedict et al, 1955).
Ammonium Bisulfide(NI 1411S). Penetrates the skin more rapidly than hydrogen.ulfide_ Since it is an
inherently unstable solid; it readily dissociates back to hydrogen sulfide and ammonia gases.
Ammonium Sulfate(NI 14)2504. Toxic to plants(Malloch et al, 1979; Sharp, 1916).
Anthraquinone Disulfonic Acid,AD)A, No health effects from its industrial use 1 avc been reported
(P(_icYrl'., 1979), Toxic to fish: 3 gins or more per liter of water(Ralph M.Parsons .ol, 1975),
Arsenic(As), All forms of arsenic are toxic at various levels;some arc potentiallyIcarcinogenic(f,ee and
l'raumeni, 1969; 1seng et al, 1968;Lander, 1975;NIOS!1, 1975), Odor threshold: 0.50 ppm(Amoore ct
al, 1983). The fatal dose is 70-180 mg/m3.
Benzene(C6H6). Causes blood disorders including anemia and leukemia(Layton et al, 1981). Odor
Ihreshold: 12 ppm(moore et al, .1983).
Boron(B). Data related to humans are limited, Several forms of Boron are irritans to skin and mucous
membranes. Ingestion of 15-20 gm of borax caused acute poisoning_ Boron particulate fallout damages
plants(Malloch et al, 1979; Sharp, 1976). Exact levels are not given but, for compari$on,irrigation water
with 10-100 ppm boron content is toxic to plants(Eaton, 1.935).
Carbon Dioxide(CO2). 2%in air can stimulate human respiration. Not considered hazardous when
adequate oxygen present(Geniis, 1978). Odor threshold: 74,000 ppm(Amoore et all 1983).
Chlorides. Not expected to produce adverse health effects(OXY, 1981).
Ethane(C113C113)_ A simple asphyxiant. No hazard known in well-ventilated en\}ironments(Germis.
1978). Odor threshold: 120,000 ppm(Amoore et al, 1983).
I lydrogen Peroxide(11202). Not expected to produce adverse health effects(PG& ;, 1982).
Hydrogen Sulfide(H2S). Odor threshold: 0.0081 (Amoore et al, 1983). increased neurasthenic effects
(fatigue,dizziness,nausea)with long-term exposure: above 0.1 ppm. Eye irritation threshold: 10 ppm.
inhalation irritation threshold: 50-100 pprn. Sense of smell stops: 150 ppm. i"at : 700 ppm. Damage
to sensitive plants: more than 0.30 ppm(Thompson, 1976);40 ppm for five hours(McCallan et al, 1936).
Mercury(1lg)_ The human lung absorbs 75-85%at concentrations of 50-350 mg/M3,almost completely
at lower concentrations(Kudsk, 1966). Inhalation produces many adverse effects.I) Mercury may also be
absorbed through the skin or by ingestion. Elimination is slow,resulting in long-t art effects,which are
only partially reversible. Children appear to he especially susceptible(13ritt et al, i
9 76). Methyhnercury
(CH3HG+),the most toxic form,may cause growth deformities(Walton et al, i 97 ). Inhalation of 100
ug/m3 can cause chronic mercury poisoning,of 1,200-8,500 ug/m3 can cause acutle poisoning.
Occupational exposure to 10-30 ug/m3 of elemental mercury may cause slight are ta,hypothyroidism
and increased excitability. Prolonged exposure may cause neurological disorders Walton et al, 1978).
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•
•
•
Mercury is toxic to plants at levels in the parts per billion range over several day (Jacobson et al, 1970).
Over 10 ppm dry weight in plant tissue is toxic.
Methane(('114)_ Odorless. Not known to induce ill effects even at high concentrations in ambient air.
Nitrogen(N2). No known hazard from its increased presence in ambient air.
Nitrogen Dioxide(NO2). Odor threshold: 0.39 ppm(Amoore et al, 1983). ln-it,lation threshold: 1-4
ppm. Lethal: 50-300 ppm.
Radon 222(222 Rn). Adverse health effects,including lung cancer,may result ' OM inhalation of
Radon-272 and its short lived,alpha-particle emitting associates(13E11{, 1972). "'here is at present no
known level ot'exposure to radiation below which no biological damage occurs cstin et al, 1980).
Sulfur Dioxide(S02). Annual concentrations of 0.05 ppm(130 ug/m3)led to hit'
ncreased frequency of
respiratory illness. The threshold for increased chronic bronchitis in adults and increased acute lower
respiratory disease in children is 95-200 ug/m3 (EPA, 1974; 1975). Hospital admissions with respiratory
illness increased when 24-hour sulfur dioxide concentrations were 0.12-0.19 ppm(finklea, 1973). Odor
threshold: 1.1 ppm(Amoore et al, 1983). Irritation threshold: more than 3 ppm(Case el al, 1977). 1-10
ppm(2,600-26,000 ug/m3)increased airway resistance in humans and other animals.More than 400 ppm
caused death. 0.3 ppm for 8 hours is toxic to plants(Gauch et al, 1954).
Sulfates. Taste/odor threshold: 700 ug/m3. Irritation threshold: 350-2000 ug/m3. 10-3000 ug/m3 can
cause illness(Case et al, 1977; Layton et al, 1981). Brief exposure to 700-5000 Ug/m3 sulfuric acid mist
(H2SO4)resulted in increased airway resistance.
Suspended Particulate Matter. The health effects of suspended particulate mater depend on the
particle size and chemical composition_ "No effects"threshold: 1.00 ug/m3 (Cas et al, 1977). Morbidity
threshold: 300-375 ug/m3(DHEW, 1970). Mortality threshold: 200-750 ug/m . ['articles larger than
0.5-2 um diameter are usually trapped in the upper respiratory system and cleared in a few minutes.
~matter particles may remain in the body for months or years(Case et al, 1977),
Vanadium('V). Little evidence is available on the health effects of vanadium. t concentrations more
than 50 ug/m3, insoluble vanadium compounds accumulate in the lungs and cau a irritation(Bahu, 1975),
Large amounts cause toxicity and death(OXY, 1981). Toxicity of vanadium to fish depends on water
hardness and can be fatal (Ralph M..Parsons Co., 1975)_
[Tlu'(.,hove i,v from "Goddard& Goddard Engineering—Environmental Studies)"pg. 44-46, Table 10
Health Effects of Air Pollutants from Geothermal Development.'J
Ishe above substances, in varying compositions and amounts,are release into the environment
during construction, maintenance,and operation of geothermal power plants. I) ring drilling and testing
muds,oil, and geothermal fluids are collected in"sumps"at the site. .1 he comp(site sludges formed from
these contain numerous toxins and heavy metals,such as mercury. Geothermal ludges can pose a danger
to workers,underground aquifers,area streams, lakes,and other water courses. 'Also at risk arc plants and
fauna dependant upon these areas for sustenance and habitat.
(.iascs are also released, with the most significant amounts escaping into the area atmosphere
during initial drilling,testing,and periodic maintenance. In some plant designs .Ruing"stand by",when
iAr.Iv::irr) is.;tin being pumper)rr/.>J ni hL-n.wpvi,ii'hid not e/lili fe li4)/p1?4 '/C'l/U?, there(1!!tCy
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venting to the atmosphere. Some plants at the Geysers have employed this method,though current
practices utilise pollution abatement scrubbers. Well blowouts are another source of unabated geothermal
emissions. A"wild well" located in the Geysers Wild Horse area, emits about 306,00(lb./yr.of
hydrogen sulfide(8,2%of the Geyser's total). Isfforts to stop these emissions have Proven unsuccessful.
I Tncontrolled blowouts have the potential to vent up to 55,000 lb./hr, of geothermal Isteam and its
pollutants into the surrounding environment.
Hydrogen sulfide(H2S)is one of the more notorious toxins resultant from jothermal operations.
It and lesser amounts of other sulfuric forms have been"broadly disseminated as ae osols across areas
surrounding geothermal development,especially along lines of prevailing wind pat -ms_ 112S becomes
sulfur dioxide(502)through oxidation. Both lbtms are hazardous to plant and animal life. Varying
amounts of these and other pollutants listed in the preceding chart are released into the atmosphere.
Current Emissions Regulations: Loopholes of harm ■
While H2S emissions are regulated,required to be no more than 0.03 ppm, rovisions exist that
weaken this requirement_ First,while drilling,geothermal contractors are permitter to vent up to 500
ppm of 1-12S into the atmosphere. This is 5 to 10 times above the inhalation irritatit n threshold and over
1,666 times the level at which.17.12S causes damage to sensitive plants(0,3(1 ppm). ''he fatal exposure
level fur HIS is 700 ppm,however, concentrations above 500 ppm can result in res iratory paralysis
leading to death. Only if emissions are found to be above 500 ppm, are contractors required to notify air
pollution control districts,after which they have twenty-four hours to act before they need to either close
the well or install air pollution abatement equipment.
Yet another loophole is permissible sulfur dioxide(S02)emissions levels_ 112S gas oxidizes in a
12 to 18 hour period becoming S02 as it is exposed to air. The permissible limit f'r S02 is up to 1000
ppm,yet over 400 ppm of S02 can be fatal. The irritation threshold is only 3ppm, espiratory irritation
occurs at 1 to 10 ppm and 0.3 ppm for 8 hours is toxic to plants. This calls into qu stiun who these
permissible levels are intended to protect'? The surrounding environment,workers,community,and
animals—or the uninterrupted economic production interests of geothermal Comm rcial ventures? Why
are these permissible levels set 2 %times higher than the level fatal to human life?1 Why are they set over
3,333 times higher than the level toxic to surrounding plants?
At the Geysers,however,these permissible levels have not always been hi enough. In 1982 a
petition for a variance from complying with the 1,000 ppm SO2 emission standard was filed by Pacific
Gas and 1:lectric Co. Apparently during plant start up operations,which involves irect atmospheric
venting(in systems other than binary), it was deemed necessary to exceed this limi . $02,in addition to
being toxic and potentially life threatening—especially at these"permissible"leve •—is also a major
component of acid rain. As it combines with cloud or ground moisture,it converts to sulfuric acid.
Within the geothermal fluids,concentrations of the different pollutants vary. rota'dissolved
solids contained within these fluids vary as well,from several hundred ppm to over 350,000 ppm.
Particles of these toxic chemicals are carried from the geothermal emission source,rising with the
prevailing wind currents. Chose particles,ranging between 5 and 15 microns,generally fall out within 1
to 5 miles. Between .5 to 5 microns they remain airborne for longer periods,allowing chemical reactions
to occur changing the nature of the substance(H2S to SO2 to sulfuric acid)_ Smaller particles ranging
.from.1 to.5 microns or less remain airborne"indefinitely." These particles can ester the body through
the respiratory system. 'l hose less than 1 to 2 microns can penetrate deep into the espiratory tract and are
readily absorbed into the blood stream through lung tissue. Some of these substan•es,such as mercury,
accumulate without being eliminated. hydrogen sulfide emissions tend to he in thi penetrating smaller-
si7e particles.
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Polluting to Clean:
Air pollution abatement systems have been implemented in geothermal plants,including the
Geysers. To lessen the 1125 emission levels,Hydrogen Sulfide is oxidized into el'mcntal sulfur and
water,which is then incorporated into sludge. A National Institute of Occupation'1 Safety and Health
(NOSE!)analysis of geothermal sludge revealed sampled compositions to be 63° sulfur, 19% iron, 17%
oxygen,with the remaining 1%containing over twenty mineral and metals in trac quantities. However,
to achieve the"safe"emissions levels that have been found in tests by NOSH an three major
independent environmental and health firms the Geysers uses`thousands of tons"of toxic chemicals_
Vanadium pentoxide is among those used in a scrubbing process to reduce the levels of arsenic,1-12S,and
other suspended particulate matter to government regulated standards for atmospheric emissions. Toxic
"cleaning"chemicals have been associated with cases of workers' illness and acu.e toxic exposures.
The "Creeping Geysers Crud"&Debilitated Health
Workers at various geothermal facilities have experienced severe health i pairing consequences
from geothermal emissions exposure.Abnormally high occupational incidences (heart attacks,
respiratory ailments,major liver damage,bodily disfigurement,lung scarring,pun unary disease,high
blood pressure,and damage to various internal organs have been reported. Workers have experienced
bloody noses,chronic coughs,and other respiratory problems,headaches,stomas 1 ailments,eye
irritations,sluggishness,dizziness,vomiting,and a persistent skin rash they've named the"creeping
Geysers crud." Doctors,including Dr.Philip Kasonri of ilealdsburg, Ca,have co elludcd the symptoms
workers have experienced indicate short-term chemical poisoning.In an eight-m nth period Dr. Rasori
treated about thirty-five workers for illnesses caused by brief acute over exposer to toxic chemicals. In
1984 30%of significant work related injuries reported on the job were respirato ailments. Complaints
have been filed by various Geysers geothermal workers,some seeking compcnsa'on for what has been
diagnosed as permanent work related disabilities.One former employee has dove oped a rare form of
asthma,dehydration,pneumonia,and a chronic cough requiring medication.A g othermal electrician
surfers from permanent disability from liver damage due to cumulative exposure .o toxic chemicals while
employed at the Geysers. Another worker, a firmer power plant mechanic,repo edly developed a
chronic rash,bronchitis,acute cough,and"an anal fistula which had to he surgie,fly removed." 'Iwo
unions, local 342 of Concord and local 38 picketed and initiated legal action as a esult of health and
environmental concerns. In another lawsuit, a Geysers'drilling rig worker charg'd that 1.offland Brothers
('o. Inc.,a drilling company, used geothermal"plant waters"containing various t xic and hazardous
substances to wash down drilling rigs; including arsenic-a known carcinogen an skin irritant. The
worker was fired,apparently as an example to other employees, when he complained of a bodily skin rash
from the"plant water."
Kudos of Evasions
In 1978 NIOSH found that an"unknown toxic agent"occurring within g thermal steam or used
to control pollution emissions was causing skin rashes and respiratory problems. In a more recent study
in the mid 1980's by the California Occupational Safety and Health Administrati m(Cal-OSHA), deposits
of arscnic and vanadium dust were found after a malfunction in the steam clean g process. the arsenic
tests showed concentrations of 430 ppm- over two times the state's safety standLrd. Vanadium, for
which test results showed concentrations of 4.200 ppm,had no set safety standard,though it is a known
toxin. While cleaning up a chemical spill resulting from the malfunction, twenty-four workers developed
nosebleeds, nausea,and other illness symptoms.Of these 13 were unable to work for"an average of'two
weeks.,.
In 1 980,NIOSI-I conducted an environmental and medic& survey at the request ler a health haLard
evaluation by Geyser's employees' union iRIW local 1245 in licaldshurg,Ca. Workers were concerned
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with a high incidence of heart attacks,high blood pressure,fatigue, and respiratory s well as digestive
problems, The NIOSI I report however, dismissed the workers' concerns,especially as to heart attacks,by
claiming that the live heart attacks that occurred were the normal amount to be exp cted with the size of
the worker population.Apparently the circumstances in which the heart attacks Oct:- rred were either not
investigated or were otherwise omitted from the report. NIOSH determined the a.v• age population to
heart attacks statistical ratio to be sufficient as an answer to worker concerns. lode Indent
communication with a former employee however,told of heart attacks occurring simultaneously or
shortly after acute exposure to high levels of geothermal steam containing H2S. This issue was not
sufficiently investigated and addressed.
Chronic Exposure
the cumulative effects and likelihood ol'synergistic reactions of the various toxic emissions and
chemicals generated or used during geothermal energy production need to he adeq tely investigated and
responsibly addressed. Short-term acute exposures have resulted in debilitating illn sses.Chronic long-
term exposure may result in far more serious health-damaging consequences. Mor research,conducted
independently of government and industry sources if possible,is needed to fully un crstand the extent of
the hazards posed to the health of workers,their families and offspring,as well the urrounding area
residents.
Periodic Devastation
Area environmental studies have fared no better for the prospects of geothe al's ecological
viability. Livermore National Laboratory conducted a five year study on geothermal production in the
Salton Sea area,concluding:
"the Salton Sea will turn even saltier, the air will he polluted with noxious i gases, the valley
will sink due to hot brines drawn up from underground, and inadvertently spilling of salt
laden fluids unto surrounding farm lands."
A publication by the Northwest Power Planning Council entitled"New Resources Supply Curves
and Environmental Effects"(I'eh 28, 1989,pg. 35)in its section on geothermal energy production states:
"Production of Electricity:Impacts of production affect the air and ground ater. Hydrogen
sulfide,a toxic substance with the odor of"rotten eggs"is produced,&thou, it can apparently be
controlled. Mercury,boron,and radon gases appear in trace amounts and Monia,methane,
carbon dioxide and argon result from the air ejector system and the cooling ystem. Recently
reports from California say that whole crops have been destroyed by period c emissions from
geothermal plants. The airborne emissions have fallen on crops destroying the crops and
contaminating the ground."
The California Energy Commission,in 1981,studied the chronic effect of(cysers emissions upon
local vegetation. While'1125 emissions were recorded as low,acid rain and boron.alts from the
geothermal plant spread over"considerable distances." This caused vegetation los es to a"long list of
California's native trees." Another study,in 1979,found that plant stress and dam gee from boron
affected an area of 247 acres. Climatic induced change by steam emissions increa,.ed the air temperature,
cloudiness and humidity of the area. This induced change has been shown to be re ponsible"for fungal
disease and branch die off in black oaks"at the Geysers.
Swarms of Seismicity
One of the major`faults' with all geothermal plants is that they are almost always located directly
above or very near a fault.By its nature geothermal occurs in technically active areas. Power production
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practices of re-injection,serving both to dispose of toxic geothermal fluids while It the same time helping
to replenish and somewhat prolong reservoir use,have been linked with inductio of seismic activity.
Studies conducted by scientists with the U.S.Geological Survey concluded that g othermal power
production induces seismicity_One of the possible means is that re-injection ofth- spent fluids,which is
generally done at a deeper level than the original tapping well, lubricates the diff- ent fault line plates as
well as altering the pressure upon them,causing them to"slip." Another theory i. that tapping the
geothermal reservoirs depletes the pressure built up underground causing the plat.s to shift_ Perhaps both
of these factors work synergistically to cause minor quakes of 3.5 to 4.0 on the Ri liter scale. '1-he
Geysers area has experienced quakes of these magnitudes that have been associat d with geothermal
production. Geothermal production areas in Mammoth Lakes,California have al o experienced"swarms"
of quakes, Studies are ongoing attempting to further understand the correlation between commercial
geothermal energy production and tectonic activity.One indicator has been notable land subsidence in the
areas above geothermal reservoirs.
Aquifers, Tectonics and Toxicity
Possible stream,ground water,and aquifer contamination arc additional e' vironmental problems
resulting from geothermal production. Toxic contaminant harms can occur throu h mishaps in
production processes,as well inherent potential due to the complexity of geologi features and production
requirements. Reinjection is one danger area wherein potential exists for fluids to enter an underground
aquifer.Another is that of well pipeline rupture or other production fluid leakage.Fluids could escape and
enter area streams and ground water,poisoning aquatic fauna and area plants.To counter this,the plant at
Mammoth I.akes has spill containment basins,dikes,gates and Shut off valves. l-:owever one fault of all
these systems remains the potential for a major quake,which is especially high in these tectonically active
areas,Occurring sometime with in the projected 30 years use-time of the plant.Speculation remains
despite industry assurances to the contrary,that"fail sale"spill prevention systems remain as fragile as
glass built upon a herd of sleeping buffalo.'The large quantity of fluid flowing th ough the pipes(at
Mammoth it is 300,00()gallons per hour)coupled with the possibility of the struc Ural integrity of the
facilities,spill containment ponds,dikes,and gates being compromised by the fo cc of a quake-where
these are no longer able to fulfill to their intended!'unction;the potential for ecolcigitral disaster is
relatively high. Generally the industry operates under the assumption that plant crsonnel will he able to
respond to leaks within minutes. In an emergency situation this may he very likely prove implausible- If
gales are so damaged they cannot shut,and/or dikes are breached, geothermal fluids with all their toxins
would f low unabated into surrounding area waterways,soils,and aquifers.
Yet another probability of ground water contamination exists! geothermal'sludge.Geothermal
sludge is composed of geothermal fluids,oils,and drilling muds; containing sulft.r compounds as well as
arsenic, other toxins,and heavy metals. Sludge is stored in sumps on the site,which could potentially fail
contaminating surrounding streams and ecosystems. Plans to solidity sump contents, becoming part of the
soil or subsoil ignore the long-term effects of the release ofgeothermal sludge's t'xie components
through erosion and precipitation.
Abandoned unreclaimed geothermal sump sites, such as the Cal Energy c ploralion sites on
Deschutes National Forest lands near Newberry National Monument that have he n lefl abandoned and
unreclaimed for well over a decade,can become compromised over time, leachin I potentially toxic
compounds into the soils,ground waters,and aquifers. Additionally, the Cal Ene gy site holds seasonally
standing water open to wildlife,with tracks of deer, birds, and mammals evident n its edge-water muds,
Renewable Depletion
tinder current energy production demands,geothermal viability as a"renewable, sustainable"
energy source is largely a phantom whose myths have come home. Plant constru:tion is expensive, with
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a 20MW plant estimated in 1990 to cost approximately$38 to$50 million dollars. these costs are
considerably higher today as both a consequence of growing inflation and the deva tied dollar,as well as
higher technological and construction costs. For example,geothermal exploration ells being drilled at
central Oregon's Newberry Monument area sites in 2008 reportedly cost between. 5 to$7 million each_
with 9 to 10 test wells permitted and no guarantee that a feasible production source will he l and or that a
production plant would be permitted.
Production plants are projected to have a"use time"of thirty years. Yet thi•projection is not
always consistent with reality.The volume of fluid pumped from underground rose oirs is immense,
such as Mammoth's 300,000 gallons per hour. At the Geysers as of 1990 there wer already indications of
reservoir depletion. Steam pressure had decreased 20 percent since 1987 and was e peeled to drop by hall'
that in the next 10 years.The actual use time of these plants may in reality he Only 0 to 15 years-only
half of what was originally projected.Even Mammoth,which became operational i November of 1984,
began showing signs of depletion by 1990.At this time,hot springs in the immedi e area had dried up
and land subsidence had occurred_But whether geothermal reservoirs can last ten t.r even forty or more
years, they arc not truly sustainable. 'The current methods of energy production mil uire too large a
volume ol.'reservoir fluids.Depletion at such rates eventually is inevitable,with res rvoir renewal time
estimated to he considerably longer than the production use time of approximately, 0 years.
Opposition in Geothermak Hawaii's Puna
in 1990,plans to construct a major geothermal plant in a Hawaiian rainforest resulted in
considerable environmental opposition.The proposed area,near the Puna volcano,has a geothermal fluid
H2S content six times that o1'the Geysers,at 1,300 ppm concentration.The area is one of extreme
geological instability.Yet the project was being pushed through by big industry with government help.
The unstable nature of the volcanically active area is a cause of significant concern The area first being
considered for geothermal production was inundated by new lava flows following est drilling.The lava
covered 25,000 acres destroying former rainforest and burying the original propos d geothermal site.
Many of the I lawaiians feel that the volcanic lava flows were triggered by the drill ng of geothermal
wells. The government response was to"trade"27,000 acres of public rainforest tr st lands to the
geothermal development company in exchange for the lava covered devastated Ian s. The area traded is
the"last original raintorest within the U.S." It was to he held in public trust to pro ect the native
1 iawaiian plants and fauna as well for public use.However the public is now forbi den entrance.
Some of the initial Puna test wells had to be suspended when workers taped into volcanic lava
tubes and attempts to plug geothermal leaks through the passages were unsuccess' 1. Being able to
regulate dispersal of reinjected geothermal effluent as planned may prove implausible in these areas. The
"highly fractured"nature of subsurface formations also carries the potential for col tamination of ground
waters aquifers.Well bores are equipped with casings cemented to the subsurface ortnations designed to
prevent this. However fractures within the formations put stress upon the cemente castings and can result
in their failure.By 1990,three of the area wells had already experienced leakage f ono casing failures_A
casing leak at ground water level was found in one of these wells in addition to tw other leaks at split
and separated casings.This leakage was occurring very early in this planned geoth•rmal plants' projected
operating time of thirty years.The likelihood of more leaks due to stresses on cem nt bonds over time is
significantly greater.The development of geothermal energy production in such• unstable volcanically
active geological area carries the potential for ground water contamination and se re impacts upon the
health of the surrounding environment.
The danger to the rainforest and its fauna from geothermal's toxic emissio s is considerable. H2S
emissions oxide into even more phytotoxic S02 in about twelve hours.This is rele ed as sulfuric acid in
acid rain and suspended in acid fog.Short-term effects hit young,rapid growing plants,those growing in
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drier soils,and the more sensitive species hardest.Long-term chronic acidification of the surrounding
area,and the resulting imbalance of the natural soil chemistry can threaten the survival of the entire area's
ecosystem. The toxic effect on area plants from the 1125, S02,and boron, with th absorption of these into
plant tissues,will likely result in the mortality of many plant species.Cumulative) ,these dangers are
further augmented by the area's natural volcanic emissions.
As of 1990,from the initial drilling phase of geothermal construction,.Puma's area residents had
experienced:burning nasal passages,mucus discharges of eyes and nose,burning eyes,screaming noise,
constant headaches,respiratory problems,bronchitis,asthma attacks,ear infectio s,and a burning rubber
smell. Arsenic, mercury,hydrogen sulfide,selenium,hydrogen selenite,and sulf r dioxide were expected
to become present in increasing concentrations within the area's ambient air.'I'w of the substances are
known carcinogens(arsenic and selenium)and another is a"co-carcinogen"(sul dioxide),bringing
higher risk of cancer to geothermal plant workers and area residents. Children,el erly,people with
chronic illness,pregnant women,and"men anticipating fathering children"will .most affected.Some
of the potential harmful health impacts include adverse affects upon the central n rvous system,the
gastrointestinal system,the respiratory system, kidneys,peripheral nerves,etc. 1� ese impacts affect not
only humans hut the rainforests fauna as well. Some of the smaller species,due i part to less body
weight,have less tolerance for these toxins and are affected more severely-in the long run threatening
their ability to survive_
In addition to the dangers inherent within the potential release of geothe al fluids and emissions,
there are the dangers posed by fragmentation of the forest. Due to plant site cle• ng and swaths cut
through the rainforest for power transmission lines(expected to average 500 acre•for 25 MW)it is feared
that non-native species will invade these cleared areas,displacing native plants,it sects and fauna. Many
of these native species are found nowhere else on earth. Fragmentation threatens heir survival and the
rainforest's viability as a functioning eco-system.During 1990,local and internal onal opposition to this
plant's construction resulted in a series of public protests and related arrests. Whi e native Hawaiians and
conservationists struggled to halt the plant,the Hawaiian government and indust ,motivated by
projected energy and profits,chose to ignore the growing evidence of ecological d human health harms.
Philippine's Mt.Apo
In 1990,Mt.Apo in the Philippines was another site for a geothermal pla t being opposed by area
residents.The plant was planned within a park regarded"as one of the richest bo anical mountains in the
region. It is also the last major habitat for the endangered Philippine eagle.The a ea known as the 13ac-
Man Project planned thirty or more geothermal wells.Stack source measurement for T42S emissions
tiiund 990 ppm; 290 ppm Over the fatal threshold limit,and many times the 40 p m fear 5 hours damage
to sensitive plants_ Well sites are expected to significantly impact the area's forest;disturbing natural
habitat and adversely affecting the region's fauna's ability to survive. Another ge thermal project,the
"Southern Negros",released spent drill fluids,injuring fish and shrimp within th area's river_ Ffflucnts
containing arsenic are projected in quantities that pose a danger to aquatic fauna.Gayong River's health
as an ecosystem has declined rapidly since the drilling started in the early 1980's By 1990 it appeared to
he"close to the point of hcological death."Long-term operation of planned geoth"tmal plants is expected
to result in the cumulative build up of heavy metals and other toxins in the area's rivers and seacoast. the
consequent absorption of geothermal toxins into the food chain would adversely affect the fishing-
dependant coastal population,as well as the fish themselves.Area tanners are al,.o expected to sutler
From geothermal toxic emissions, many of which are harmful to plants. As in Ha} ai;i as of 1990,local
oppositions to these projects was considerable.
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Mammoths of-Extinction?
Mammoth Pacific,a plant the geothermal industry cites as ecological clean,has had significant
local opposition as well as adverse environmental impacts. It is located within a for,st recreation and hot
springs area.Considerable concerns for area streams and creeks,as well as a local 1 sh hatchery,were
raised. Local groups and the Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund of California were in olved in the
opposition.Potential long-term harmful effects(as addressed earlier)on the area's nvironment remain,
Problems exist with environmental impacts from periodic maintenance, the potent' I fin-earthquakes,as
well as leaks and the high permissible emission levels of SO2.
"Green Energy?"
A non-profit conservation organization in California has stated"the only thi g green about
geothermal energy production is the money."Painting large industrial scale produc fort plants green,and
attempting to blend these huge facilities into the surrounding landscape,while mor aesthetically
desirable perhaps, is tantamount to taping cosmetic bandages over unhealed bleedir g wounds unless
environmental harms are addressed and prevented.Despite all the available information on the toxicity of
geothermal energy production,government subsidized industry promotion and development continues
which largely fails to adequately disclose and address geothermal energy productio 's known harmful
environmental and human health impacts_Geothermal proponents continue to writ glowing reports on its
increasing economic viability while down playing or ignoring ecologically harmful impacts.The industry
has gone so far as to begin claiming that geothermal energy is"green energy,"comparing its impacts to
that of coal powered electrical production plants.While,depending upon which to ins and environmental
impacts are addressed,geothermal may appear more"green"than coal,such allusi ns are akin to
comparing a murderer to a batterer and calling the latter"socially responsible"as t cir harms are less
reprehensible.
Comparisons with Coal
Societal desires for the replacement of coal powered energy production are important and valid,
given all coal energy's known direct and indirect environmental and health harms.But coal use for energy
production has been ongoing since the advent of electricity. Its impacts have grow both exponentially
with the rise of societal electrical energy dependence,and cumulatively over time. ollutant emissions,
acid rain,hazy skies,impaired health,and the impacts of widespread coal mining h ve increased
significantly over the decades of industrial societies use of coal.The small scale ge}thermal plants of
today may initially appear tar more benign than coal,however they are not without their own inherent
harms.As a society,we have a responsibility to protect and restore living Earth's n tural ecosystems,and
provide for the health and well-being of current and future generations.We must c mprehensivcly and
realistically address the full impacts and long-term repercussions of gcothennal en rgy production—well
before this path is taken,It is essential that we do not repeat the mistakes of the p with our use of coal
or h)r that matter nuclear,merely replacing known environmental harms with yet n•w ones to come_
Reigning in Societal Energy Excess
Additionally,as a society we need to reign in our ecologically harmful excessive energy demands,
learning to live in better harmony and care for our natural environments.Wasteful esource and energy
use;inefficient building designs;excessive and needless production and consumpti n;and inferior
products with short use-life;account for a significantly high proportion of current nergy use and growing
demands. Exponentially expanding human population growth continues to add unt noble stress upon the
Earth's environments.By beginning to effectively address these serious energy us s,needs,and impacts
we can better meet real energy and resource needs,while ensuring viable na.tur41 e vironments and a
healthy quality of life for current and future generations.
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Similarities with Early Wind Power
Similar to wind power in its early stages of development,when structural&signs,location,and
blade speeds resulted in unacceptably high numbers of avian species deaths and in'uries,geothermal must
first responsibly address its actual environmental impacts.Similar to wind power, 't may be that improved
technological advances and designs could significantly reduce large-scale geothermal energy production's
harms to more acceptable levels.
At present however,as with other proposed alternative electrical energy production methods,
ecological viability is being sacrificed for economic feasibility,excessive energy demands,and industry
profit desires. Public funds and lands are increasingly in danger of being misappropriated and misused to
further industrial energy production goals over environmental responsibilities.
Towards Ecologically Responsible Common Ground
As the perceived need and varied societal proposals for geothermal production development are
already underway,the following can help establish ecologically and legally responsible common ground.
The Need for Meaningful Public Involvement of Affected Communities
Interested and concerned eititens, area residents,state agencies and local gOvemments,and
members and staff of regional non-profit conservation organizations within the aftMeted geo'aphical
scope of proposed geothermal energy production projects must receive sufficient vane notice and
adequate inlonnation to reasonably and meaningfully participate in sighting,envir nmental analysis,and
decision-making processes. Il is important that citizens have the opportunity to cot meet and
meaningfully participate in analysis and decisional processes regarding geothermal energy production
proposals,their impacts and related issues.
The Need for Involvement of Appropriate&Affected Management& Oversight gcncies
Not only should both federal and state Department of Energy off ces be in olvcd in geothermal
production proposals,hut additional federal and state agencies as appropriate sho d review and
participate in proposals_ DOI:expertise is relevant primarily to energy production elated portions of
geothermal proposals_As the analysis of geothermal impacts,and selection of acceptable and appropriate
locations,affects natural ecological resource concerns throughout the regions involved,additional federal
and state agencies with management jurisdiction and oversight on potentially aflettedd natural resources,
including aquatic,terrestrial,avian,and botanical hiodiverse ESA listed species and species of concern,
must also he included and consulted during geothermal environmental analysis processes.USFWS must
he consulted regarding potential impacts to federally ESA listed species and recovery plans for these
species and other species of concern.National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA)must
similarly be consulted and included in this process(salmonid species populations,and current and
historical habitat,exist in many regions where geothermal production has been proposed.The EPA,which
addresses atmospheric emissions,environmental pollutants, and water quality issues,regulations,and
concerns must similarly he involved in this interagency process. Additionally,as his process and
subsequent impacts will affect state natural resource management plans and coneenns,including affected
state-listed hiodiverse species and recovery plans for these species,as well as state environmental quality
requirements and concerns,appropriate state agencies must also he involved and consulted in this process.
In Oregon this would of necessity include the ODFW and the DIQ,among others. Similarly,appropriate
oversight agencies in affected states must be included in assessing geothermal proposals in their
territories.
Additional Ecological and Legal Considerations
Ueothermal energy may not he a panacea helping to solve current societal energy production
tlkaatt1'u1s and pTeems,.((oVnw,assessed COtni1tehenti1ve1y sand used responsibly,geothermal energy
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production may have a significant contribution to make in helping resolve current energy issues and
needs.
Geothermal Projects:
• Geothermal resources are often associated with significant surface features such as geysers,
volcanoes and hot springs with scenic,cultural,and flora and fauna diversity value,and tend to he
in ecologically sensitive areas.
• The need for surveys:in addressing specific geothermal resource sites,resp',msihle agencies must
also assess and disclose site-specific resource issues and concerns.Proposed exploration areas
must he surveyed lirr hiodiverse ESA listed species and regional species of concern,and these
must be disclosed in a public NEPA process.Direct, indirect,and potential mpacts to these
species must he addressed.
• Geothermal energy production processes can also require sizable sources of water,affecting
aquifers and area environments over time.
• Documented evidence of significant harmful impacts upon natural enviro tints,human
communities,aquifers and watersystems,and agricultural operations undo core the responsibility
of federal and state agencies to responsibly and carefully assess site impact and acceptability.
• Efficient transmission of electrical energy produced at geothermal plant fac lilies requires either
existent power transmission line systems or the opening of new power line outes and
construction.
• Geothermal energy production can have significant short and long-term regional and site-specific
environmental impacts_Consequently,agency analysis procedures and Grit ria employed to assess
environmentally appropriate and socially acceptable location issues for geo hermal energy
exploration and production are crucially important.
• Proposed geothermal exploration and test drilling irrevocably alters and often degrades public
lands in and surrounding the project area(s).
• lxploration drilling directly impacts and irretrievably alters natural ecological conditions and
functioning at and adjacent to geothermal resource sites_
• Geothermal exploration and production requires significant irretrievable commitment of natural
resources,among these are:
a. road construction and/or road reconstruction, including widening road beds(usually to a
minimum of 14 feet width),adding turnouts,and reconstruction improv'ng curves for
associated large trucks and heavy equipment i
h. Construction of well pads,holding ponds,waste and storage areas,equi ment and personnel
areas,etc.Well pad sites for exploration purposes are often approximat ly 5 acres or more in
size,with ongoing exploration often requiring the establishment of sev al well pad and related
management sites.
c. Production plants can require significantly vast areas,irretrievably altering natural ecological
appearance and functioning in and adjacent to production sites.
d. Power transmission routes and associated construction of necessity ace mpany energy
production.If transmission routes are not already established in the res urce leasing area.,
efficient location of additional routes would have to be assessed as part of this process.
e. If geothermal development is not to irretrievably alter,degrade,or frag .ent existent
inventoried and uninventoried roadless areas and areas of significant ec)logical,recreational,
and/or community concern;direct,indirect,and cumulative impacts res Iting from geothermal
leasing,exploration,and production development and energy transmiss on must be thoroughly
assessed for each site-specific project,with management direction and ecisions based upon
protection and retention of ecologically significant natural resources an related priorities and
concerns.
tel
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• Exploration construction(well pads,roads,holding ponds,related features) is often ongoing for
extended periods of time, covering many months or years. Drilling often requires two or more
months of continuous operation to complete each exploratory test hole,often occurring ceaselessly
24 hours a day throughout extended periods of time.Impacts to human r 'rational experiences in
affected public lands natural environments,including the impacts of cons ruction and related noise
upon the solitude, peace,and tranquility of nature, as well as impacts to iodiverse native species
and natural habitats,must he addressed,with protection provided ensurin•public lands arc not
unduly degraded,and that natural recreational experiences are not harmedl_
• Overall,proposed exploration construction and test drilling can run any .ere from months to
years to complete,with incessant drilling noise,construction,and associ tcd impacts, including
often unchecked highly toxic emissions from exploratory test holes.
• Exploration,to varying degrees dependent upon geologic subsurface structure,geothermal
pressures,and localized tectonic activity,inherently includes the risk of well blowouts,which
often have proven to he unstoppable,resulting in ongoing highly toxic e issions.
• Well blowouts elsewhere have resulted in highly toxic emissions of hydr gen sulfide and other
dangerous pollutants that continued unabated for years(as occurred at G,yeers California, among
other locations).
• Geothermal resource areas arc often geologically active and tectonically l'young,"with pumping
of geothem-ial fluids known to result in shifting subsurface pressures,subsidence,and increased
tectonic activity.Geothermal production can alter subsurface geothermal fluid flows,and research
concludes it can induce seismic activity,including"swarms of small eart%quakes."
• Geothermal exploration and production over time across the region can incrementally
cumulatively substantially alter and degrade a significant extent of the nation's natural public
lands environments.
• Geothermal exploration represents a considerable financial expenditure I'resources that could not
he reasonably recouped without the eventual approval,construction,and decades long operation of
related geothermal production plants. NEPA analysis for proposed geothermal exploration must
not he segmented from the full impacts of geothermal production. Impacts for proposed
exploration projects and must be fully assessed in conjunction with the environmental impacts of
production,as well as the cumulative impacts of related and geographica;ly proximate
management actions as well
• Wilderness areas, Wilderness Study Areas,Research Natural Areas,Roa less Areas(inventoried
and uninventoried),National Monuments,Wildlife Refuges,popular rec 'ational areas,areas of
significant ecological values,habitat location areas for ESA listed specie•and biodiverse native
species of'concern,and areas near human communities and residences are likely highly
inappropriate for geothermal exploration and production activities,and a, such should be
administratively withdrawn.Federal regulatory and management agencic Must responsibly
develop management analysis and decision provisions ensuring the prior'tization and protection of
these above areas of ecological significance and concern. In particular, sponsible agencies
should identify potential land-characterized policy approaches that woul- provide for"protected
areas"and"restricted areas"where geothermal development is either of7'llimits or perunissihle only
with the most stringent conditions and monitoring.
• I"ederal laws require the agency assess the ecological appropriateness, or lack thereof, of proposed
geothermal exploration and production sites, including direct,indirect,foreseeable,and
cumulative impacts. Areas where actions could result in significant harm•to the environment
should be withdrawn from geothermal exploration,production,power transmission,and related
actions.
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• I ederal policy laws require the agency hold public hearings in affected comnluiities and regions
on proposed geothermal projects. Provisions for meaningful public notice and involvement must
be made for all proposed site-specific project areas.
• Federal policy laws 1.1_,PMA and NEPA require 13LM.and the IISE'S conduct .4 joint inter-agency
EIS for proposed geothermal projects on TJSFS administered public lands, assessing the full
impacts of geothermal power production in affected areas as well as the impacts of exploration
and test drilling(as noted above these may not be segmented into separate an'.ilysis processes)_
• federal policy laws and judicial caselaw prohibit analysis segmentation of geothermal projects,
preventing such projects from being implemented piecemeal, incrementally irrevocably altering
and/or degrading affected proposed geothermal locations.
• The comment timeline for proposed geothermal production must responsibly]provide ler sufficient
timely public notice.
• The public environmental assessment process must disclose and address the full range of
significant issues,environmental impacts,and concerns. 111.M.and participating and affected
federal and state public lands,environmental and oversight agencies need to rovide for
meaningful public involvement,an adequate public comment period,and co duet public hearings
in proximity to geothermal resource areas,with adequate public notice throu pout the affected
regions of this nation.
• "l he notice of intent to conduct an EIS or an EA for geothermal production p lojects must he
published in the federal register,and published in notices and articles across the greater affected
region's community newspapers.
• Federal courts have affirmed the responsibility and ability of federal ageneie• to uphold the intent
of Congress by basing their approval or denial of proposed exploration proje is on public lands in
part on whether the minerals exploration and/or operation would result in utMeeessary or undue
degradation to public land(referred to as 1_1(11)). This standard allowing the ithdrawal of
subsurface resources from exploration and development to protect natural re ouree concerns and
human communities,must he applied to agency management options across ll public lands.
• 111,M and the UST'S must develop provisions directing decision-makers to wisely deny geothermal
exploration and development where natural resource and human community Concerns clearly take
precedence over proposed geothermal plans,either by withdrawing affected 4reas from subsurface
exploration,by a[RID-type determination,or other responsible provisions,thereby protecting the
m t
ecological integrity of natural ecosystem's and surrounding human eomies as necessary.
• Development throughout the greater region has already resulted in the loss, egradation,and
fragmentation of significant areas of wildlife habitat,including corridor habi at.Direct and
cumulative impacts on a landscape scale to connectivity for biodiverse speci s,especially far-
ranging terrestrial,aquatic,and avian species,and to natural ecosystem func Toning and integrity
must be addressed in assessing geothermal production proposals. j
• Direct, indirect,and cumulative impacts to archeological and cultural resour a areas must be
addressed in proposed geothermal projects,with provisions incorporated pr testing significant
known,suspected,and potential sites from adverse harm and undue disturb ce.
• '(here is a need to list all studies,maps,CIS layers and other resources heinf;used by 13I.M/1.JSFS
in addressing geothermal development proposals_
• Geothermal testing and production can result in the direct and indirect relea,a of dangerous
quantities ofhighly toxic emissions into the atmosphere, and can result in c ntamination of
surface and subsurface aquifers with dangerous toxins. Proposed projects m st fully disclose and
assess these potential impacts—includin.g those resulting from proposed tes ing and exploration,
during which period geothermal site explorations can cause substantial scvc c harms to area
ecosystems,aquifers,and atmosphere,as well as result in severe harms to ci izens and the human
environnmcnl.
19 j
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• Seasonal fires are common throughout substantial areas of western suites public lands ecosystems.
Geothermal analysis must address potential severe lire impacts to geothermal drill and production
sites. including the potential impacts that may result in the unplanned refuse of dangerous toxic
emissions.
• Similarly,tectonic activities in this geologically active area are not uncommon. Proposed projects
must assess and disclose potential impacts of increased tectonic a.ctiviity associated with
geothermal exploration and production upon the sites themselves,including unchecked toxic
emissions,and cumulative impacts upon the greater region.
• Significant social, political,and recreational issues exist with proposed exploration and production
of geothermal resource areas.These issues are of great concern to alli::cte,i communities,as well as
many of the nation's and world's citizens who visit the region's public lards fig recreation and
natural inspiration. Proposed projects must fully address geothermal exploration and production
issues and impacts upon public lands as related to recreation and the enjornent of natural
ecosystems.
• Much of the western U.S. is internationally recognized as the heartland o�'numerous indigenous
peoples cultural heritage sites. Many western public lands areas are wort renowned for their
indigenous historical and spiritual significance.Proposed projects must a dress the direct, indirect,
and cumulative impacts of proposed geothermal explorations,and related production, upon
significant historical and spiritual heritage sites throughout the western re ion.
• Federal environmental policy law requires that members of the public an the decision-maker
have adequate and accurate information necessary to make an informed d-vision before a
proposed project on public lands may be approved.Federal law clearly re uires that proposed
projects such as the test drilling may not be segmented from the propose geothermal production
with which it is inextricably tied, but must instead be addressed in one comprehensive
NI:PA/FLl'MA RS process.Proposed projects must incorporate and cornply with the letter and
intent of federal policy laws,ensuring project impacts are fully assessed ''id disclosed.
• Expediting backlogged geothermal lease proposals must not be done at th sacrifice of public
lands ecosystems,native species hiodiversity,or the well-being of human communities as well as
the heritage of future generations.
Cumulative Impacts&Reclamation
Re lore any new exploration proposals can he considered,that may compound existent adverse
cumulative impacts across affected regions, the Ibllowing questions must he addrjessed:
1. What type of subsurface minerals and energy resource claims have been bled in proposed lease
areas area,and by whom?
1 I lave former minerals/resource claimants fulfilled their responsibilities to;restor'e impacted claim-
site areas?
3. Have claimants posted monetary bonds of sufficient amount to eompen..to for the restoration of•abandoned project claims and surrounding areas should irreparable envire mriental and/or human
health impacts occur?
4. When there are unresolved reclamation issues, will current and/or future claimants inherit the
responsibility to restore the area from past abuses?if so, what measures what measures will be
required to complete needed restoration work'?If not, who is responsible tb ensure that the needed
restoration is completed, and to pay the costs of this work?
5. Given the increased leasehold proposals and subsequent related oversight 'espunsibilities of
federal agencies, how do the agencies propose to effectively accomplish tl eir responsibilities to
oversee and monitor current and additional proposed geothermal operatior s,as well as either
management oversight responsibilities(graring, (lllvs, mining,rccrea-.tion, ele.1 now do the
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agencies propose to ensure required restoration is completed once propose projects are
terminated • or if a project(s)results in significant adverse environmental impacts, including
unforeseen impacts that can he associated with geothermal exploration? What funding provisions
for oversight,monitoring and reclamation enforcement will be included'?
Regarding potential reclamation and restoration needs, in many locations there exist a poor track
record ol'such reclamation ever occurring.Provisions in word alone, without adeq;aate funding and
enforcement mechanisms,have proven insufficient to accomplish essential reclamation.This is especially
so for mining operations,however,there are also geothermal exploration well test sites that also have
never been subject to reclamation_ As reclamation of affected sites is required by federal environmental
policy laws,proposed projects must include provisions lbr the financial and enforcement capabilities
necessary to ensure this is effectively completed.
Forest Service& RIM Public Lands;Oversight and Responsibility
As part of the responsibility entrusted in both 1711,,M and the US.DA-Forest Sery ice,by Congress and
the public,to steward national forest public lands, it is requisite common sense tha before the agencies
would approve proposals,oir sign contracts,they would first conduct research into the legality and
environmental track records of business ventures and individuals seeking to operate on,or otherwise
impact public lands resources. As the first responsibility of federal agencies is to the public's best interest
on these lands,infirnnation from this research must be disclosed to the public(as is also required by
federal policy laws). Federal agencies must address this significant issue for all proposed geothermal
production projects on,or affecting, public lands.
From Hot Springs to Heated Homes—Geothermal's "Green"Future
Alternatives to hazardous uses of geothermal energy exist,Direct use of na urally available
geothermal fluids for heating exists in Iceland,and within the 1l.S. at Breitenbush
tri
d Klamath Falls,
Oregon, Such use does not require pumping huge volumes of geothermal fluids wi h the consequent
presently inevitable release of their toxins into the environment.Instead,on a much smaller scale they tap
into and direct geothermal fluids and steams that rise naturally from the earth,using it directly for heating
or other localized purposes other than mass electrical energy production.
I f geothermal is to have ecological viability as a truly renewable"green"er ergy source, it is first
in such limited scale uses where this is found.As with other natural energy source ;designing systems
compatible with the natural functioning of the environment is a priority.Viable sy terns should not
substantially adversely alter ecological systems that have taken millennia's to evolve_1 lumans,with our
limited understanding and shortsighted goals,have wreaked far too much havoc upon the environment
around us. Geothermal can work by tapping into naturally flowing hot springs forldireet use heating.
Together with wind and solar thermal,or small-scale"free standing"hydro,directgcothennal can be part
of functioning localized"green energy"systems.
Geothermal cannot be considered sustainable or"green"by drilling,pumping and spreading huge
quantities of toxins while depleting their source_if the geothermal production industry truly wishes to
create ecologically responsible,sustainable,"green"geothermal energy productio ,the onus of research
addressing environmental impacts and health harms,and developing ecologically 'cceptable benign
production methods fills to them,their investors,and proponents.The practice of pending our children's
futures to meet industrial societies'assumed needs has to appreciably change hefo e this,acting
synergistically with other ecologically harmful societal practices,further impairs t e survival and quality
of lif of us all.
•
?1
•
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Footnotes:
' Renewable Energies,PD:Dunn,pg.54-56(R.JL,Dunn).Staff Issue Paper;Geothermal Resources,Northwest Power
Planning Council,Oct. 1989,pg.3(5.1.1'.,NPPC).
" Resource Assessment;Evaluation and Ranking of Geothermal Resources for Electrical Ge eration or Electrical
Offset in Idaho,Montanan,Oregon,and Washington,Vol.1,Bloomquist et al,pg. 142(R.A.,. loomquist et al).
`° S.I.P.,NPPC,pg.6-7.Innovative Design of New Geothermal Generating Plants,Bloomquisk et al,US DOE&BPA,July
1989,pg. 13(l.l)NG,Bloomquist et al/DOE-.BPA).
'" Ibid,pg.23-25(ICING,Bloomquist et al/DOE-BPA).
• Si.?.,NPPC pg.9-11.
I
' Ibid,pg.9. Sustainable Energy,Report by Road America, 1989,Chris Flavin,Rick Piltz,&Cris Nichols,pg.30(SE/RA,
C.Flavin ct al.)
"" S.I.P.,NPPC pg 9.
"i" Ibid pg.9.
"` lhid pg,9-10.
• Ibid pg. 10.
x' Ibid pg. 10.
I'l' lI)NG,Bloomquist et al/DOE-SPA pg.24,26. RA.,Bloomquist et a!pg. 133-
"" Permit to Operate,Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District,Permit#325 for Mamlhoth Pacific,May 16,1988
(PO-MP).
"" ibid.
"Mono County Preliminary Report on Incident at Mammoth Pacific Geothermal Plant,Mtirch 20, 1990,Great Basin
l)nifIcd Air Pollution Control District(MCR).
Additional references included in the above report:
1) "Summary of geothermal Drilling Activities in the Western United States"S.A.Tani,Geothermal Energy.
2) "Exploration for Geothermal Resources,Boma Mountain State Forest,Lake Cannily California"California
State Lands Commission.
3) "Environmental Assessment of the Ambient Air Quality and Toxic Exposure Episo les of Jacqueline Clarke
During Employment and Commuting at the Pacific Gas and Electric Company.Ad inistratien Center at the
Geysers"Goddard and Goddard Environmental Studies.
4) "Document for the Withdrawal of Geothermal Subzones"Kapaho Community Asso iation,Pahoa Hawaii.
5) "Great Basin Unified Mr Pollution Control.District:Conditional Approval to Cons act a Geothermal Well."
6) "PLES 1—Geothermal Development Project:Final EIS and Supplemental EIS Re art"by Environmental
Science Associates for BLM-Bishop Resource Area Office,USFS—Jaye National For st,and Great basin Unified
Air Pollution District,June 1989.
7) "Review and Subsidence in the Can Diablo Area,Long Valley Caldera,Mono County,CA"Mesquite Group
Inc. I
8) "Ground Water Monitoring Review:Geothermal System Failures"Spring 1982.
9) "Northwest Power Planning Council"Fch. 1990.
10) "Shattering the Geothermal Myth"Susan Meeker-Lowry,Catalyst Vol.VIII,No. 1&'2.
11) "Energy Efficiency and Least Cost Planning:The Best Way to Save Money and Reduce Energy Use in Hawaii"
R O.vc J.1■ 0..7i,x RJrin.foroet Amine Network, F''rh. 1090
22
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12) "Geothermal Hopes Run Out of Steam"Eric Brazil,San Francisco Examiner,April 9, I989.
13) "Hawaiian Tropical Rainforest Alert"Rainforest Action Network,March 1990.
14) "Hawaii Debates Peril to Rainforest as an Energy 1'rnject Taps a Volcano"Timothy I}gan,New York limes—
National,Jan.26,1990.
15) "Trouble At Home"Rick Carroll,This World,Oct. 1, 1989.
16) "True's Hawaiian Well Running Into Dot Water"Dan Whipple,Casper Star Tribune, yoming,Aug.31,1989.
17) "Hawaiian Natives Steamed At Geothermal Plant"Chris Vaughan,San Francisco Chr nicle,April 3, 1990.
18) "Power.Play Endangers Hawaii's Rainforest"Bill McKibben,Rolling Stone,May 31, 990_
19) "Battle Over Hawaii Geothermal Plant Heats Up"Susan Essoyan,Los Angeles Times,Dec.10,1989.
20) "Topic 13,Pele Defense Fund—Geothermal Summary"D,Fisher,Jan. 1990.
21) "Over 1,000 March Against Goo"0.Hunter Bishop,Hawaii Tribune Herald,March 26,'1990.
22) "Rainforest Action Network:Press Release"Feb.21,1990.
23) "Biggest Geothermal Demonstration Yet—132 Facing Charges"Hugh Clark,l-lonolul'a Advisor,May 10,1990.
24) "The Destruction of Mt.Apo"Chip Fay&Nonette Royo,Envimnmcntal Policy Institute&Legal Rights and
Natural Resources Center,
25) "The Bacon Maaito Geothermal Project—An Environmental Impact Assessment"1985.
26) "Resolution of the People(Tlagog Nin Tiwi)of the Municipality of Tiwi,Province of Albay,March 9,1987,
Tiwi,Albay,Philippines"
27) "Republic of the Philippines,Dept.of Health Field Operations,Regional Officer No.f5,Rural Health and FP
Center,l'Iwi,Albay"
28) "Letter to Oriel C.Clutario,Munincipal Mayer,Tiwi,Albay from Leonides Cruel MD,Sept.21,1.989"
29) "Letter in response to geothermal questionnaire from:Gordon Bloomquist,Washington State Energy Office,
April 6,1990;George D.Darr,Dept.of Energy,BPA,April 11,1990."
30) "Sustainable Energy"Christopher Flavin,Rick.Piltz,&Chris Nichols,Renew America'l989.
31) "Geothermal—Part of the.Mix in Hawaii's Energy Future"Energy Division,Dept.oflBusiness and Economic
Development,State of Hawaii,Fob. 1990.
32) "Newberry Geothermal Exploration Project I A"Central Oregon BLM,2007.
33) "Programmatic EIS for Leasing of Geothermal Resources"USDI BLM notice,2007.
34) "Newberry Geothermal Pilot Project EIS"USFS and USDI ELM,1994,