Understanding local pig hunter values and practices as a means toward co-management of feral pigs (Sus scrofa; pua'a) in the Hawaiian Islands

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Ecology and Society 28(2): 32 htt.ps f.l� s / r[32/ 2017). Establishing collaborative management arrangements in the form of Indigenous agency, the ability and capacity of Indigenous people to self -govern in their best self-interest (UN 2007) through ancestral values such as malama aina, may increase Indigenous and community participation in stewardship efforts of place while also fulfilling conservation and management goals (Winter et al. 2021). Improving means of communication to enhance collaboration The need for better communication between hunters, managers, and the broader community was a key recommendation that emerged from this study. Recommendations include a suggestion for agencies to conduct public meetings at times and places convenient for community members to attend (e.g., after work hours, weekends), engage hunters to assist with outreach, and employ outside entities who specialize in mediation and facilitation. For example, mediators in the 1990s helped to organize meetings on Hawaii Island with community members including hunters, environmentalists, and forestry managers that facilitated recommendations to resolve long-standing conflicts in feral pig management (Adler 1995). By their last meeting, community members had built strong relationships that enabled them to make collective agreements. Nonetheless, studies about successful collaboration and co -management among community members in Hawaii are still lacking, and conflicts continue to re- emerge. Open interpersonal communication is a critical component for successful collaboration (Schuett et al. 2001), and will more likely lead to co -management (Schusler et al. 2003). Specifically, small working groups may help to familiarize people with one another and build positive relationships (Schusler et al. 2003). Most meetings between resource managers and hunters in Hawaii are held at times when most community members work, and include one person speaking in front of a large panel of state employees. Some participants from our study suggested this type of meeting deters people from speaking. Crowley et al. (2017) emphasize that communication strategies in invasive species management are often simplistic and one-sided. They recommended communication strategies that promote dialogue between groups and address concerns, for instance mentioning both the positive and negative impacts of a potential invasive species management effort (Crowley et al. 2017). Similarly, some participants from our study wanted DLNR to also consider and recognize the potential for unintended negative impacts of proposed management actions, rather than solely promoting the intended benefits. Participants also suggested building long-term steady communication with hunters, including to assess effects of existing management, rather than only holding meetings to propose a new intervention. Another study found that unclear communication of environmental assessments by government agencies was a key constraint to building trust among community members; and in response, community members called for more consistent and honest communication by the agency (Davenport et al. 2007). Identifying how to improve communication is crucial because it leads to other benefits for management like increased trust (Davenport et al. 2007). Lack of trust has been identified as a reason for past resource management conflicts between agencies or decision makers and resource users (Young et al. 2016b). Hunters in our study suggested that they need to continue to self - organize within their hunting communities to demonstrate their ability and commitment to co -management with the state. Our study identified multiple layered reasons that hunters value invasive species, besides just for food. Helping managers and the public to understand these values is vital to enhancing trust and collaboration for invasive species management. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH This study aimed to identify social -cultural values and practices of hunters and how understanding their values and practices can aid in improving policies and collaboration for feral pig management. Although interviews cannot fully represent all hunters in Hawaii, they provide a rich source of information to inform improved management and relationships, as well as a baseline for comparison with future studies. Future studies should expand our understanding of natural resource co -management by exploring gender diversity, geography, and the range of relationships among diverse community members (e.g., hunters, large private landowners, NGOs, cultural practitioners, hikers, and other user groups) that will be critical to meeting community needs regarding feral pigs. Results from this study demonstrate that hunters value pig hunting for numerous reasons, vary in their perceptions of the current state of hunting and management of hunting, and recommend solutions that enhance management while expanding hunting opportunities. Incorporating forms of Indigenous agency, like the Indigenous and local knowledge that hunters possess of feral pig behavior and distribution, can increase the effectiveness of management actions, along with using place - based approaches to management. This study suggests engagement with local hunters may create pathways toward co - management that help to reduce past conflicts between government agencies and local resource users while improving community participation in management of invasive species. Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank all of' the hunters who participated on this project for sharing their valuable stories, knowledge, and time. We would also like to thank the people involved in the Hawaii Wildlife Ecology Lab and Vaughan Piko for their support and feedback throughout the process of' this research. Thank you to the employees at the Department of Land and Natural Resources' Division of' Forestry and Wildlife for sharing their time and knowledge about the division regarding management priorities and their perceptions of' the state's current relationships with local hunters. This research was funded by the College of' Tropical Agriculture & Human Resources at the University of' Hawai`i at Manoa and the United States Department of Agriculture. This research reports work fi^om the lead author's Masters dissertation (Luat-Ha'eu, 2020 "Finding Pathways Toward Co -Management of' Hawai`i's Feral Pigs (Pua`a; Sus scrofa): A Historical Review of Biocultural Coevolution of' Relationships Between Hawaiians and Pigs and Semi -Structured Interviews with Local Pig Hunters") at the University of' Hawai`i at Manoa.