Understanding local pig hunter values and practices as a means toward co-management of feral pigs (Sus scrofa; pua'a) in the Hawaiian Islands

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Ecology and Society 28(2): 32 htt.psf.l� s /ar[32/ expanding hunting areas simultaneously. One participant recommended, "Make more check -in stations ... we [hunters] usually have to park on the side of the road. Make one area where we can park inside ... Get plenty spots that I feel get [have] plenty pigs." Two participants brought up the idea of a lottery system similar to that on the island of Lanai for Axis deer hunts, stating, "It would be cool if they did open up another region on the island or section on the island to hunt ... Every hunter could have their number submitted and it's just a random pool. Whoever gets pulled up (in the lottery), those groups of hunters can go hunt in this section this week."Participants would like more official access to the mountain because they already hunt many areas, so it would help if those areas were legally approved by the state. Similar to respect and finding common ground, changing mindsets was also a recommendation among some participants (n = 4), more specifically changing the mindsets of hunters. As one participant stated, "The hunters have to get on board and the hunters have to recognize [that] if we're going to save hunting, if we're going to save fishing, we have to practice conservation and we have to support it." Another recommendation was for hunters to self -reflect, "[it is] a lot harder to ask yourself ... what part do I have to play [to improve management]? That's just the first step ... The acceptance is often the first step of these processes." Less common recommendations from the interviews included volunteer programs, increased capacity within the hunting community, and better communal coordination on an interpersonal level (not allowing emotions to hinder ability to work with others). Participants recommended expanding access to hunting areas, along with education, enhanced respect and communication between managers and hunters, more agency engagement of hunters in decision making and hunters changing their mindsets to become participants in conservation. DISCUSSION With this study we aimed to understand the social -cultural values and practices of pig hunters and how those values and practices can aid in improving co -management of feral pigs for hunting and conservation. The majority of hunters interviewed for this study identified as being Native Hawaiian. Participants primarily hunted feral pigs as a food source, but also mentioned a range of additional motivations for hunting that included peace of mind, perpetuating family traditions and culture, maintaining physical health and exercise. They also described responsibilities inherent to hunting, as well as recommendations for improving pig management. We will draw upon all of these results to describe three emerging themes that may improve co -management of feral pigs and other culturally important invasive species in Hawaii and beyond: (1) expanding mechanisms of access to hunt or gather invasive resources such as feral pigs, (2) integrating rights and responsibilities to meet management objectives, and (3) improving means of communication to enhance collaborative arrangements. Expanding mechanisms of access to increase hunting opportunities for invasive species Lack of access to hunting areas emerged as a key concern for hunters in this study. Interview participants talked most directly about physical access, discussing the number of entry points into hunting areas, physical distance needed to travel, impacts of residential development, and areas landlocked by private lands. People also had limited time to hunt because of work and family schedules, making efficient physical access more critical. In Hawaii, feral pigs are increasingly seen along highways and in residential areas, possibly because of decreasing access to mountain areas (Vaughan 2018). Access conflicts with hunting are well documented in the literature. A study that surveyed big game hunters in the continental U.S. identified access to private and public land as one of the top constraints for people to continue hunting (Montgomery and Blalock 2010). Both landowners and state governments have increased their efforts to restrict access to private lands for hunting (Sigmon 2004). One reason for decreasing access to private lands is in response to poaching or trespassing by hunters (Wright and Kaiser 1986). Another study that surveyed elk hunters in Montana determined that access to hunting on private lands decreased because of increased commercialization of wildlife (e.g., hunting tours) and that most of the state hunting lands were inaccessible because they were landlocked by surrounding private lands (Eliason 2016). Other contributing factors to the lack of access to private lands include changing land ownership, increasing development, and changing public values and perceptions of hunting (Miller 2002). Beyond physical access to resources, access can also be defined as "the ability to benefit from things" (Ribot and Peluso 2003:155). Using this broader framework, Ribot and Peluso (2003) offer multiple mechanisms of access, which allow people to benefit from a natural resource including technology, authority, markets, labor, capital, knowledge, identities, and social relations. The mechanisms of access articulated by interviewees in this study offer a range of potential solutions for increasing access to hunt and manage invasive species. Following the guidance of Ribot and Peluso (2003) to extend our analysis beyond problems of physical access, we found that barriers to hunting in this case could include gaining access to technology, e.g., four-wheel drive vehicles to reach remote locations, GPS to map areas of high pig activity, and GPS collars to track locations of hunting dogs during hunts. Another access issue of concern is knowledge. This includes having the knowledge required for properly training hunting dogs to effectively track down feral pigs, and acquiring knowledge about specific characteristics of hunting areas like weather variables, seasons, food availability for feral pigs, and moon phases that shape access to the resource. Transmission of this Indigenous and local knowledge between hunters from a given area and across generations, is also a challenge as has been shown with ILK of fishers and other practitioner groups in Hawaii and beyond (Vaughan 2018, Winter et al. 2023). Further, we see access to authority being important to the co - management efforts considered in our study. Most issues of public hunting are embedded in law, suggesting the need to reevaluate laws concerning hunter access to wildlife in the U.S. (Eliason 2016). Changes in law and policy require more hunters to be involved with DLNR, the legislature, and in decision -making positions. One example of increased access to authority implemented in the last few years is the Game Management Advisory Commission. In this recently created institution, elected members across the Hawaiian Islands serve in an advisory capacity to the Board of Land and Natural Resources, and help shape management decisions and actions related to public hunting.