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2.Background
<br /> subdivisions with no explicit reference to rights in the land (Cannelora 1974). While the ahupua'a was the most
<br /> common and fundamental land division unit within the traditional Hawaiian land management structure, variances
<br /> occurred, such as the existence of the kalana.By definition,a kalana is a division of land that is smaller than a moku.
<br /> Kalana was sometimes used interchangeably with the term `okana(Lucas 1995;Pukui and Elbert 1986),but Kamakau
<br /> (Kamakau 1976)equates a kalana to a moku and states that `okana is merely a subdistrict. Despite these contending
<br /> and sometimes conflicting definitions,what is clear is that kalana consisted of several ahupua'a and 'ill `aina.
<br /> This form of district subdividing was integral to Hawaiian life and the product of advanced natural resource
<br /> management systems. As populations resided in an area over centuries,direct teaching and extensive observations of
<br /> an area's natural cycles and resources were retained,well-understood, and passed down orally over the generations.
<br /> This knowledge informed management decisions that aimed to sustainably adapt subsistence practices to meet the
<br /> needs of growing populations.The ahupua'a system and the highly complex land management system that developed
<br /> in the islands are but one example of the unique Hawaiian culture that developed in these islands.
<br /> Intensification and Development of Hawaiian Land Stewardship Practices
<br /> Hawaiian philosophies of life in relation to the environment helped to maintain both natural,spiritual,and social order.
<br /> In describing the intimate relationship that exists between Hawaiians and `aina(land),Kepi Maly writes:
<br /> In the Hawaiian context, these values—the "sense of place"—have developed over hundreds of
<br /> generations of evolving"cultural attachment" to the natural,physical, and spiritual environments.
<br /> In any culturally sensitive discussion on land use in Hawaii, one must understand that Hawaiian
<br /> culture evolved in close partnership with its' natural environment. Thus,Hawaiian culture does not
<br /> have a clear dividing line of where culture and and nature begins.
<br /> In a traditional Hawaiian context,nature and culture are one in the same,there is no division between
<br /> the two. The wealth and limitations of the land and ocean resources gave birth to, and shaped the
<br /> Hawaiian world view.The Yana(land),wai(water),kai(ocean),and lewa(sky)were the foundation
<br /> of life and the source of the spiritual relationship between people and their environs. (Maly 2001)
<br /> The `olelo no'eau(proverbial saying)"hanau ka `aina, hanau ke ali'1, hanau ke kanaka"(born was the land,born
<br /> were the chiefs,born were the commoners),conveys the belief that all things of the land,including kanaka(humans),
<br /> are connected through kinship links that extend beyond the immediate family (Pukui 1983:57). Aina or land, was
<br /> perhaps most revered, as noted in the `olelo no'eau "he ali'1 ka `aina; he kauwa ke kanaka," which Pukui (Pukui
<br /> 1983:62) translated as "[t]he land is a chief; man is its servant." The lifeways of early Hawaiians, which were
<br /> dependent entirely from the finite natural resources of these islands, necessitated the development of sustainable
<br /> resource management practices. Over time,what developed was an ecologically responsive management system that
<br /> integrated the care of watersheds,natural freshwater systems,and nearshore fisheries(Jokiel et al. 2011).
<br /> Disciplined and astute observation of the natural world became one of the most fundamental stewardship tools
<br /> used by the ancient Hawaiians. The vast knowledge acquired through direct observation enabled them to detect and
<br /> record the subtlest of changes,distinctions,and correlations in the natural world.Examples of their keen observations
<br /> are evident in the development of Hawaiian nomenclature to describe various rains, clouds, winds, stones,
<br /> environments, flora, and fauna. Many of these names are geographically unique or island-specific, and have been
<br /> recorded in oli(chants),mete(songs),pule(prayers),inoa `aina(place names),and `olelo no'eau(proverbial sayings).
<br /> Other Hawaiian arts and practices such as hula (traditional dance), lapa'au (traditional healing), lawai'a (fishing),
<br /> mahi'al(farming)further aided in the practice of knowing the rhythms and cycles of the natural world.
<br /> Comprehensive systems of observing and stewarding the land were coupled by the strict adherence to practices
<br /> that maintained and enhanced the kapu and mana of all things in the Hawaiian world. In Hawaiian belief, all things
<br /> natural,places,and even people, especially those of high rank,possessed mana or"divine power" (Pukui and Elbert
<br /> 1986:235;Pukui et al. 1972).Mana was believed to be derived from the plethora of Hawaiian gods (kini akua)who
<br /> were embodied in elemental forces, land, natural resources, and certain material objects and persons (Crabbe et al.
<br /> 2017). Buck(1993)expanded on this concept noting that mana was associated with"the well-being of a community,
<br /> in human knowledge and skills (canoe building, harvesting) and in nature (crop fertility, weather etc.)" (c.f. Else
<br /> 2004:244).
<br /> To ensure the mana of certain resources,places,and people,kapu of various kinds were implemented and strictly
<br /> enforced to limit over-exploitation and defilement.Elbert and Pukui(1986:132)defined kapu as"taboo,prohibitions;
<br /> special privilege or exemption."Kepelino noted that kapu associated with akua(deities)applied to all social classes,
<br /> while kapu associated with ali'1 were applied to the people(in Beckwith 1971).As kapu dictated social relationships,
<br /> they also provided"environmental rules and controls that were essential for a subsistence economy"(Else 2004:246).
<br /> 10 CIA for the Ld'Ipala Makai Planned Unit Development,Kapala`alaea 2,North Kona,Hawai i
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