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Position of The American Dietetic Association:
Food irradiation
The Amerman Dietetic Association (ADA) and qualified dietetics professionals have a
responsibility to educate consumers on issues related to food and nutrition. One such issue of
importance to professionals and consumers is food irradiation. Food irradiation offers one
solution for addressing the growing concerns associated with food safety.
Position Statement
]t is the position of The American Dietetic Association that food irradiation is one way to
enhance the safety and quality of the food supply. The .4DA encourages the government,
food manufacturers, food commodity groups, and qualified dietetics professionals to
continue working together in educating consumers about this technology.
General Overview
Although the US food supply has achieved a high level of safety, microbiological hazards
exist. Because foods may contain pathogens, mishandling, including improper cooking. can
result in foodborne illness. About 6.5 to 33 million cases of foodborne illness are estimated
to occur annually in the United States; about 9,000 of these result in death (1). Recent
outbreaks of illness and death caused by Escherichia coli 0157:H7 have focused attention on
this emerging pathogen, which is estimated to affect 7,000 to 20,000 Americans yearly at a
cost of $174.3 to 5467.7 million (2), Irradiation has been identified as one solution that
enhances food safety through the reduction of potential pathogens and has been
recommended as part of a comprehensive program to enhance food safety (3-6).
The Food Irradiation Process
Irradiation exposes food to radiant energy. (S~e F~~re ! fur defirtirions ojfocxt rrradiarron
trrmn7oloKy.) Food is passed through an enclosed chamber - an irradiator -where it is
exposed to an ionizing energy source Fi u e 2 Although the sources of ionizing energy
may be gamma rays from cobalt 60 (corn) or cesium 137 (u7a), x-rays, or electrons
generated from machine sources (7,8), food irradiation in the United States relies exclusively
on the use of (GOCo) (9,10), which is contained in stainless-steel rods placed in racks. The
gamma rays emitted are very short wavelengths, similar to ultraviolet light and microwaves.
Dccause gamma radiation dots not elicit neutrons (ie, the subatomic particles that can make
substances radioactive), "meltdown" and chain reactions cannot occur, and irradiated foods
and their packaging are not made radioactive (8,10-12). The (corn) gamma energy penetrates
the food and its packaging but most ofthe energy simply passes through the food, similar to
the way microwaves pass through food, leaving no residue. The small amount of energy that
does not pass through the food is negligible and is retained as heat.
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The duration of exposure to gamma energy, density of food, and amount of energy emitted
by the irradiator determine the amount or dose of irradiation to which the food is exposed
(8,10,11, l3). Regulated doses are set at the minimum levels necessary to achieve specified
purposes or benefits Fi re 3 . Radiation doses allowed by the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) are the most restrictive of all countries in which irradiation is allowed
(10). Low doses (up to 1 kiloGray [kGy]) control the trichina parasite in fresh pork, inhibit
maturation in fruits and vegetables; and control insects, mites, and other arthropod pests in
food. Medium doses (up to 10 kGy) control bacteria in poultry, and high doses (above ]0
kGy) control microorganisms in herbs, spices, teas, and other dried vegetable substances
(14).
Food irradiation does not replace proper food handling. The lower doses of irradiation
permit microorganisms to survive (8). Therefore, the handling of foods processed by
irradiation should be governed by the same food safety precautions as all other foods. Food
irradiation cannot enhance the quality of a food that is not fresh, or prevent contamination
that occurs after irradiation during storage or preparation.
Historical Summary of Food Irradiation
Food irradiation has the longest history, more than 40 years, of scientific research and testing
of any food technology before approval (10)- Research has been comprehensive, and has
included wholesomeness, toxicological, and microbiological evaluation. [n 1955, [he Army
Medical Department began to assess the safety of types of foods commonly irradiated in the
US diet (15) Petitions to the FDA for approval of specific foods for ircadiation soon
followed -wheat and wheat powder received the first approval in 1963 i ure 3 In the
early 1970s, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration adopted the process to
sterilize meats for astronauts to consume in space, and this practice continues today (16).
The first products approved by the FDA were wheat and white potatoes in the 1960s. During
the 1980s, FDA approved petitions for irradiation of spices and seasonings, pork, fresh
fruits, and dry or dehydrated substances- Poultry received approval in 1990. Curcently,
petitions for seafood, ground beef, and eggs are pending approval. Worldwide, 38 countries
permit irradiation of food, and more than 28 billion Ib of food is irradiated annually in
Europe (6,17). The United States has 40 licensed irradiation facilities; most are used to
sterilize medical and pharmaceutical supplies, but 16 also irradiate spices for wholesale use,
and several others irradiate food. Food irradiation has an impressive list of national and
international endorsements: ADA, American Council nn Science and Health, American
Medical Association, Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, International Atomic
Energy Agency, Institute of Food Technologists, Scientific Committee of the European
Union, United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), and the World Health
Organization (WHO).
Benefits of Food Irradiation
Treating foods with gamma rays offers benefits to consumers, retailers, and food
manufacturers such as improved microbiological quality, replacement of chemical treatments,
and extended shelf life. The benefits depend on the treatment used (Figure 2). The microbial
count in spices can be lowered through irradiation, and the process substitutes for use of the
fumigant ethylene oxide. Compared with other quarantine treatments, irradiation results in a
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higher-quality fruit. Pathogens in raw poultry or meat can be reduced by 99.9% by a low
"pasteurization" dose of radiation (13). Use of still lower doses can disinfest grain and
produce and can retard natural senescence of fruit and vegetables. This all results in the
reduced use or elimination of chemical treatments- Irradiated foods closely resemble foods in
their fresh state (8,12).
Effect of Irradiation on Nutritive Value of Food
Irradiation has been compared with pasteurization because it destroys pathogenic bacteria.
Because irradiation does not substantially raise the temperature of the food being processed,
nutrient losses are small and are often substantially less than nutrient losses associated with
other methods of preservation, such as canning, drying, and heat pasteurization and
sterilization (7,8,10,1 l The relative sensitivity of different vitamins to irradiation depends
on the fond source, and the combination of irradiation and cooking is not considered to
produce losses of notable concern (8). Proteins, fats, and carbohydrate are not notably
altered by irradiation (7,8,12)- In genera], those nutrients most sensitive to heat treatment,
such as the B vitamins and ascorbic acid, are those most sensitive 20 irradiation. Diehl (8)
and Thorne (12) compared nutrient losses from irradiation with those associated with other
traditional methods of preparation. Vitamin losses from pure solutions are larger than losses
when the vitamin is in a food (8)- Nutrient losses can be further minimized by irradiating
food in an oxygen-free environment or in a frozen state (8,12). Fox and coworkers (18)
derived a formula to calculate predicted losses in cooked pork and chicken on the basis of
data on quantities of these items from the second National Health and Nutrition Examination
Survey in the US diet and irradiation doses allowed by FDA. Predicted losses for thiamin,
riboflavin, and niacin in pork and thiamin in chicken ranged from 0,01% to 1.5%. Earlier
reports regarding losses of ascorbic acid in potatoes, due to a shift to dehydroascorbic acid,
are no longer considered valid as they failed to consider that dehydroascorbic acid also has
vitamin activity (8) In a study of the ascorbic acid content of oranges, Nagai and Moy (I 9)
found no significant differences between irradiated and control frui[ at dose levels up to 1.0
kGy and throughout a 6-week storage period.
Sensory qualities such as appearance and flavor have been evaluated in the laboratory
(8,17,19,20) and in market studies with consumers (15,20) Consumers consistently rate
irradiated fruit as equal or better than nonirradiated fruits in appearance, freshness, and taste
(15,20,21).
Food Safety
Irradiation does cause changes in food, all of which have been found to be benign. More than
40 years of multispecies, multigenerational animal studies have shown no toxic effects from
eating irradiated foods (22). Additionally, human volunteers consuming up to 100°ro of their
diets as irradiated food have shown no ill effect (8). Irradiation produces so little chemical
change in food that it is difficult to design a test to determine whether a food has been
irradiated (23)_
A small number of new compounds are formed when food is irradiated, just as new
compounds are formed when food is exposed to heat. Early research described these new
compounds as "unique radiolytic products" because they were identified after food was
irradiated (8)- Subsequent im~estigations have determined that free radicals and other
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compounds produced during irradiation are identical to those formed durine cooking.
steaming, roasting, pasteurization, freezing, and other forms of food preparation (8,10,12).
Free radicals are even produced during the natural ripening of fruits and vegetables (22). All
reliable scientific evidence, based on animal feeding tests and consumption by human
volunteers, indicates that these products pose no unique risk to human beings In fact, people
requiring the safest food, hospital patients receiving bone marrow transplants, are routinely
given irradiated foods. Furthermore. because spices, being of tropical origin, are often
microbe laden, irradiated spices are preferred for routine use in hospital foodservice for
patients. Thus, as with pasteurization, the evidence suggests that food irradiation can make a
quality food supply better.
The American Medical Association's Report of the Council on Scientific Affairs on Food
Irradiation (10) agreed with a WHO policy statement (4,24) released in 1992
"Irradiated food produced under established Good Manufacturing Practices is to be
considered safe and nutritionally adequate because' i) the process of irradiation will not
introduce changes in the composition of the food which, from a toxicological point of view,
would impose an adverse effect on human health; ii) the process of irradiation will not
introduce changes in the microflora of the food which would increase the microbiological
risk to the consumer; iii) the process of irradiation will not introduce nutrient losses in the
composition of the food,which, from a nutritional point of view, would impose an adverse
effect on the nutritional status of individuals or populations (10)."
Environmental Safety of Food Irradiation
Strict regulations govern the transportation and handling of radioactive material. Irradiation
facilities are constructed to withstand earthquakes and other natural disasters without
endangering the community or workers Radioactive material is transported in canisters
tested to withstand collisions, fires, and pressure. Worker safety is protected by a
multifaceted protection system within [he plant (11)_
The 60Co used by US commercial facilities is specifically produced for use in irradiation of
medical supplies and other materials, It is not a waste product of any other activity, and it
cannot be used to make nuclear weapons. It is estimated that all the spent 60Co to date
could fi[ in an office desk (8,9). Disposal of 60Co is carefully arranged by the producer.
US Regulation of Food Irradiation
Congress defined the sources of ionizing energy as food additives and included them in the
Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (25), thus
delegating the main regulatory responsibility to the FDA Additionally, two agencies within
the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) are involved in the process: the Food Safety and
Inspection Service, which develops standards for the safe use of irradiation nn meat and
poultry products. and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, which monitors
programs designed to enhance animal and plant health (eg, using irradiation as an insect
quarantine treatment in fresh produce) (25).
All irradiated foods in the United States must be labeled with a radura, the international
symbol for irradiation F; ure 4 and the words "treated by irradiation" or "treated with
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radiation." Products that contain irradiated ingredients, such as spices, are not required to be
labeled. A continuing area of research is identifying scientific detection methods to verify that
unlabeled foods have not been irradiated and that labeled foods have received the intended
dose (23). An international general standard for irradiated foods and facilities was adopted
by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, ajoint body of the WHO and the FAO. The
standards are based on the findings of the Joint Expert Committee on Food Irradiation
convened by the FAO, WHO, and International Atomic Energy Agency (10).
Food categories currently approved for irradiation in the United States are listed in Fi ure 3.
The U5 facilities currently in operation process spices, ci[rus fruits, tropical fruits,
strawbemes, tomatoes, mushrooms, potatoes, onions, and poultry.
Consumer/Producer Issues
Despite repeated endorsements and regulatory approval, irradiated foods are not widely
available in the United States. Although consumers are familiar with food irradiation, many
have little knowledge of the process and its advantages (26). When consumers receive
science-based information on food irradiation, however, most prefer irradiated to
nonirradiated spices, poultry, pork, beef, and seafood (20). In a nationwide survey,
consumers indicated that they would pay a premium for irradiated ground beef (26). The
increase in cost for irradiated foods is estimated at 2 to 3 cents per pound for fruits and
vegetables and 3 to 5 cents per pound for meat products (15,16). Produce has been marketed
in some locations without a pace premium due to decreased losses and increased shelf life. h
has bean estimated that the savings from the reduction of foodborne illness are substantially
greater than the modest increase in food cost (13).
Marketing studies support the results of attitudinal surveys (20). Mangoes labeled as
irradiated sold successfully in Florida in 1986. Tn March 1987, irradiated Hawaiian papayas,
available on a 1-da}~ trial in Southern California, outsold the identically priced nonirradiated
counterpart by greater than ten to one. Irradiated apples marketed in Missouri were also
favorably received. Record amounts of irradiated strawberries were sold in Florida in 1992,
and irradiated strawberries, grapefruit, juice oranges, and other products continue to outsell
their nonirradiated counterparts in a specialty produce store in Chicago, IA. Irradiated
poultry, which is available in select markets, has experienced brisk sales- A University of
Georgia shopping simulation test (27) showed a significant increase in the proportion of
consumers purchasing irradiated ground beef after they participated in an educational
program on the benefits of food irradiation. ARer receiving information, 71% purchased
irradiated beef, including 62% of those consumers who originally said they would not
purchase irradiated food.
Role of Dietetit:s and Health Professionals
ADA and qualified dietetics professionals have the responsibility to educate consumers about
food and nutrition issues, including new technologies such as food irradiation. As advocates
for the public on food and nutrition issues, dietitians are in a unique position to monitor the
advancement and further implementation of food irradiation technology.
The greatest need is expanded education for the public and for food retailers. Pilot
educational programs could be offered in which health professionals work with food industry
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representatives to present accurate information about irradiation to the public. Educational
materials about food irradiation are available from a variety of resources including colleges
and universities and the FDA. A current and validated educational packet (21), which
includes a consumer audiovisual, is available through the Agricultural Communication
Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind.
Although the safety and efficacy of irradiation are well established, continued research on the
ability of irradiation to destroy new and emerging microbial pathogens is appropriate. With
today's demand for high-quality convenience foods, researchers should evaluate the
effectiveness of irradiation in combination with other processing methods to enhance the
safety of minimally processed foods or extend the quality and shelf life of fresh-cut produce.
In an era of increasing concern about food safety, consumers must understand that
irradiation is one method of enhancing an already safe food supply. Health professionals can
assist in consumer and food industry education.
References
1. Roberts T, Unnevehr L- n'ex approaches to regt,lating.foodsofety. Food Rev.
1994;17(2):2-8.
2. Marks S, Roberts T, E. tali p15TH7 ranks 2c the fourth mast cvs7ly foodbvrne disease.
Food Rev. 1993; 16(3):1-8-
3. American Gastroenterology Association Consensus Conference Statement: Esch¢richia
colt O157.~H7 infection - an emergntg natior[al health crisis, July 11-13, 1994.
Gastroenterology. 1995; 1 08 1 923-1 934.
4. Kewiew of [he ,Cafe[y and Nu[ritivnal Adeyuaey of Irradiated Food. Geneva,
Switzerland:World Health Organization;1993.
5. Mason J. Food irradiation -promising [ethnology for public health. Public Health Rep.
1992;107:489-490.
6. Loaharanu P..S[utus' and prospects of fcxxl irradiatiat. Food Technol. 1994; 48(8)
124-130.
7. Swallow AJ Wholasomene.rs and safety of irrodia[ed
foocfr. Tn: Friedman M, ed.
Nf,[rilional a,ul Tvxicalvgica/ Cunseyne[tces of Food Processing. New York, NY_ Plenum
Press; 1991: 11-31.
8. Diehl JF Safety of Irradia[~~d Foods. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1995.
9. Chapple A Bye, bye bacteria. Nuclear Energy. 3rd Quarter, 1993; 9-12
10. lrradiatia: of Food. Chicago, Ill American Medical Association; 1993. Council on
Scientific Affairs Report 4.
11. International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation. Facts About Fvvd Irradiat[on.
6 of R s -s~9~ t t~ to ntt
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Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency; 1991.
12. Thorne S, ed. Foal Irradiation. New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd; 1991.
13. Momson RM, Roberts T, Witucki L. Irradiation oJZLSpoultry - benefrts, costs, arrd
export potential Food Rev. 1992; 1 S(3): 16-21.
14. PouTt[~~Trradiatiorr aruiPreventi[[gFoodborne Illness Washington DC: Food Safety
and Inspection Service, US Dept of Agriculture;1992: 1-6 FSIS Sackgrounder.
15. ]ari:irrg Energy in Food Processing and Pest Controls IL Applications. Ames, Iowa:
Council for Agriculture Science and Technology; 1989 72-76. Task Force Report No. 1 I5.
16. Karel M. The future of irradiation applications on earth and in space. Food Technol.
1989; 41(7). 95-97.
17. Pruceedurgs of the [birth American Plant Protecriwr Organisation Annual Meeting
Colloquium on the Application of Irradiation Technology as a Quarantine Treatment.
Ontario. Canada: NEPEAN; 1995: 62-65. NAPPO Bulletin no. 13.
18. Fox JB, Thayer DW, Jenkins RK, Phillips JG, Ackerman SA, Beecher GR, Holden JM,
Morrows FD, Quirbach DM. EJJec[ of gamma Irradiation w[ the B vitamins uJpurk chops
and chicken breasts. Int J Radiat Biol. 1989; 55:689-703
19. Nagai NY, Moy JH. Quality oJ,gamma irradiated Califon[ia valencia orm[ges. J Food
Sci. 1985; 50:215-219.
20. Bruhn, CM Consumer attitudes and market responses to irradiated food J Food
Protection. 1995; 58(2)- 157-181.
21. Pohlman A, Wood OB, Mason AC. h~uenee of audiovisuals and food samples orr
consumer acceptance of
food irradiation. Food Technol. 1994; 48(12): 46-49.
22. Thayer DW. Wholesomeness oftrradiatedjo[xlr. Food Technol 1994; 48(5) 132-135.
23. Stevenson MIL Idertrificallon of irradiated foods. Food Technol 1994; 48(5): 141-144.
24. Kaferstein FK. Food Irradiatiar: The Positron of the World Health Organization.
Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency; 1992.
25. Pauli GH. Fund irradiation i[r the (/Hired 5'tates. In: Thorne S, ed. Food Irradiation.
New York, NY: Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd; 1991; 235-259.
26. Consumer Au~arenes.e, Knnx'ledge and Acceplmree of Food /rradiation. Arlington, Vas
Prepared for the American Meat Institute by the Gallup Organization; 1993.
27. Resurreccion AVA. Galvez FCF, Fletcher SM, Misra SK. Consumer attitudes toward
irradiated food, resultti of a new study. Presented at the 1993 Annual Meeting of the
Institute of Food Technology; July 13, 1993; Chicago, III.
s ADA Position adopted by the House of Delegates on October 29, I99S This position is in
~~ta sr5~99 n:[znM
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effect until December 199v The American Dietetic Association authorizes republication of
the position paper, in its entirety, provided full and proper credit is given. Requests to use
portions of the position must be directed to ADA Headquarters at 800/877-1600, ext 4896.
• Recognition is given to the following for their contributions:
Authors:
Olivia Bennett Wood, MPH, RD, and Christine M. Bruhn, PhD
Reviewers:
Dean O. Clivcr, PhD; John W Erdman, PhD,, William C. Morris, PhD; Claire Regan, MS,
RD; Anita Wilson, PhD, RD
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