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HomeMy WebLinkAboutCOM 0545.000 1996-1998 .•....r. Mtvw~ `~-~t" y6i'~ Diane S. uiti uit Stephen K. Yamashim ~ Q 9 Mayor Dimctor ~IIliltf~? II~ ~tl~lT~Ctt r- DEPARTMENT OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT n 25 Aupuni Stree[, Room 219 • Hilo, Hawaii96720-A252 • (808) 961-fS366 • Fax (808) 935-1208 n ~ l KONA: (808) 329-5226 • Fax (808) 326-5663 - E-mail: chresdev®in[erpacnet - ^ _ October 2l, 1997 _ MEMORANDUM TO: JAME;i Y. ARAKAKI, CHAIRMAN, HAWAII COUNTY COUNCfC AND C'.OUNCIL MEMBERS VIA: DIANE. QUITIQUIT, DIRECTOR FROM: RAYMOND CARR, ENERGY COORDINATOR SUBJECT: HAWAII CLIMATE CHANGE ACTION PROGRAM Under a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the State of Hawaii Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism (DBEDT) and the Department of Health have initiated a project to develop, implement, and evaluate a greenhouse gas reduction strategy for the State of Hawaii. The first phase of this project has recently been completed, the development of a statewide greenhouse gas inventory for the baseline year 1990. For your information and that of interested council members, a copy of DBEDT's report on this inventory is enclosed. More copies are available on request from R & D department. Also attached is notice of a workshop on the Hawaii Climate Action Change Plan to be held at the State Capitol Auditorium, Honolulu, on October 30, 1997. With concerns about global climate change appearing in recent headlines, this workshop provides a timely opportunity foir interested individuals to participate in the development of specific goals for Hawaii and to help identify measures to reduce greenhouse emissions. xc: Mayor Stephen K. Yamashiro (w/o enclosure) Virginia Goldstein, Planning Director (wlo enclosure) CuGili. DI4_ X45 Note: Enclosure i.s on file in the Clerk's Office. nJTp. _ FS1• P1w Norf. '!n! OCT 2 ~ 1997 _ k,~i. i late ' v, > v> 3 s ,o a E~ y E~ c c- a a_ Y 1 V E~ :p ~ a 3 y T O Y$ y Y. y .D $ 'p y C ,.a. ~ • 1 ~ y p°p'= w y~y •°E-' d ~ ~ cane ~ ~ ~ 'moo' ~ ~ $ € °ac' ~ ~ ~i • i ~ a 'O ~ y C Vi a A~ d 3 W C N U N Y~ Y 4 L r ~ • 1 r U Q o a ~ E Y OV u _ q E o ~ YLY. $ _ ' c ~ .c_ • • ~ ~ • E e e ~'a x 3 C V a r n. y ~ a C o L' ~ Y 3 ~ c, o o~ o ca' ~ a r~ a _ O g. ~ o y m o.°_ E ~ y B °o~~ ~ 'o a E 0 3 .5 ~ i~ aZ .a ~ a ~ O ~ U Y ~ .7 d'~ m c y V = Y a Pr c .O ~ 3 ~ OO y ~ ,7p ~ .c a o aEi 3 c `aYi c E ~ 3 ° LY' o d ~ uN, a ~ ~ a y pp L y .0+ O W a= Y ~ bOD 7 ~ C rn U y O ~ a. c H ~ o y~ Y. ~ Y c- a .D Y m .5 E t= Y .o Y c c y Y= a .fl .fl ~ emo r ~ ~ w 'v o 0 o m 3 ~ C c mss 'n 3 ~ ~ E 3 ~ cce ~ y a°i •°c • • d `a ~ ° ca m ~ 5 ~ d 3 Q' ~ a .aY. C7 `a m E ~ v; ie rn . c Y ~ • Q V S p E y c is ~ ~ V Y ~ Y~ Y O Y c m c c Z o Y c -o • ~ e= G m ~ r a a ~ o a L Z .fl • a ~ ° :a °.o^-='„~ cue ~ o o~ O Q C .5 q Y ~ O L •E'. 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O W yC p~; O Y ~ C C C Y~ 'q Y .Y y a C v°i ~ ~ C 6~ W Y V1 rL i~ a Y O C OS a aa;c G 'w e O = e dp o x m ~ C a Y ~ W E ~ Y a Y OY $ L SJ. <C > N T w ~ i ~ •O ~ W 4 ~ Y W ~ i O O q d • 4' o o c°~ m 2 d ~ U No. Z O~ c c O N V d Zi ~ Co 70 ~ W ~ o tq D 'c < ° ~n • f E ~ F H ~C ,,,ooooooooo, q ~ o o o o ~w o o ~ o o ~ o o o 0 0 o o o ~o c~ o ° ~ ~~o o 00 0 ~C~p~~,o 0 00o.oooD~~~~otr G L~3Gr7°, ° ~ ~ Inventory of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimates for 1990 July 1997 State of Hawaii Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism Energy, Resources, and Technology Division and Department of Health Clean Air Branch Inventory of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions Estimates for 1990 July 1997 Edited by Steven C. Alber, Energy Analyst Climate Change Action Program Manager Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism Energy, Resources, and Technology Division Energy Section by Steven C. Alber, Energy Analyst Climate Change Action Program Manager Non-Energy Section produced under a subcontract from the State of Hawaii Department of Health by the University of Hawaii Environmental Center Jacquelin N. Miller, Principal Investigator James Morrow, Project Manager Veronica Ewald, Research Assistant Noel Ludwig, Research Assistant State of Hawaii Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism Energy, Resources, and Technology Division and Department of Health Clean Air Branch Funded by Cooperative Agreement CX 822845-01-3 with the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation under the State and Local Outreach Program and matching funds appropriated in 1994 by the State of Hawaii Legislature Disclaimer This report was prepazed as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government. Neither the United States nor the United States Environmental Protection Agency, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately awned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or services by trade name, mark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of the authors expressed herein doe not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or an}~ agency thereof. Printed on Recycled Paper This report has been cataloged as follows: Hawaii. Dept. of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism. Energy, Resources, and Technology Division. Inventory o:f Hawaii greenhouse gas emissions; estimates for 1990, by the Energy, Resources, and Technology Division, Dept. of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism and the Clean Air Branch, Dept. of Health, State of Hawaii. Honolulu: 1997. 1. Greenhouse gases-Hawaii. I. Hawaii. Dept. of Health. Clean Air Branch. TD885.S.G73.H38.1997 TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents i Chapter 1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Climate Change l-1 1.1 Overview 1-1 1.2 Organization of the Study 1-2 1.3 Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change ..................................................1-3 1.4 Potential Effects on Hawaii ...................................................................1-12 1.5 Energy Sector Definitions Used in This Report ....................................1-14 1.6 Additional Work Performed in Phase I ..................................................1-16 1.7 Next Steps ..............................................................................................1-17 Chapter 2 1990 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions .............................................2-1 2.1 Overview 2-1 2.2 Estimated 1990 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2-1 2.3 Estimated Global Warming Potential of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions 2-3 2.4 Estimated Greenhouse Gas Precursor Emissions 2-9 2.5 Estimated Emissions from Overseas and Military Uses ........................2-]0 2.6 Comparison of Estimated Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions With Selected States 2-12 2.7 Recommendations for Improvement of Future Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventories 2-15 Chapter 3 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy Use 3-1 3.1 Overview 3-1 3.2 Hawaii's Energy System 3-1 3.3 Cazbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Use 3-6 3.4 Non-Cazbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Use 3-10 3.5 General Methodology for Estimating Emissions 3-13 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory i Chapter 4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Stationary Source Fossil and Biomass Fuel Combustion 4-1 4.1 Overview 4-1 4.2 Summary of Emissions from Stationary Energy Sources 4-1 4.3 Emissions from Residential Sector Stationary Sources 4-5 4.4 Emissions from Commercial Sector Stationary Sources 4-6 4.5 Emissions from Industrial Sector Stationary Sources 4-8 4.6 Emissions from Electricity Sector Stationary Sources 4-11 Chapter 5 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Mobile Source Fossil Combustion 5-1 5.1 Overview 5-1 5.2 Summary of Emissions from Mobile Sources 5-1 5.3 Emission;; from Aviation Fuel Use 5-11 5.4 Emission:> from Marine Fuel Use 5-13 5.5 Emission:> from Highway Vehicle Fuel Use 5-16 5.6 Emissions from Other Mobile Sources 5-26 Chapter 6 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Non-Energy ....................................6-1 6.1 Overview 6-1 6.2 Summary of Hawaii Non-Energy Emissions 6-1 6.3 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Non-Energy Sources 6-2 6.4 Methane 1missions from Non-Energy Sources 6-3 6.5 Other Emissions from Non-Energy Sources 6-4 Chapter 7 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Industrial Processes 7-1 7.1 Overview 7-1 7.2 Summary of Emissions from Industrial Processes 7-1 7.3 Emissions from Oil Refining and Utility Gas Industries 7-1 7.4 Emissions from Cement Industry 7-3 Chapter 8 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Municipal Waste Management.... 8-1 8.1 Overview 8-1 8.2 Summary of Emissions from Municipal Waste Management 8-1 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory ii 8.3 Emissions from Municipal Solid Waste Management 8-2 8.4 Emissions from Municipal Wastewater Treatment 8-13 Chapter 9 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Agricultural Activities 9-1 9.1 Overview 9-1 9.2 Stinnmary of Emissions from Agricultural Activities 9-1 9.3 Emissions from Domesticated Animals 9-1 9.4 Emissions from Manure Management 9-3 9.5 Emissions from Agricultural Soil Management 9-8 9.6 Emissions from Forest Management and Land Use Change 9-9 9.7 Emissions from Burning Agricultural Crop Waste 9-14 Appendix A Acknowledgments A-1 Appendix B Bibliography ......................................................................................B-1 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory iii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overviews This study is Phase I of the Program for Developing, Implementing, and Evaluating a Greenhouse Reduction Strategy for the State of Hawaii which is being jointly conducted by the State of Hawaii Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism's (DBEDT) Energy, Resources, and TechnoloE,ry Division; and the Department of Health's (DOH) Clean Air Branch. This work was performed with the support of a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). It was pazt of the USEPA's State and Local Outreach ]Program which has been working with the states to assist them in the following:: • identifying their greenhouse gas emissions sources and estimating their overall contribution to radiative forcing; • assessing the areas of the state that aze most vulnerable to climate change; and • developing state-specific greenhouse gas mitigation strategies (USEPA, 1995b, v). The purpose of this study was to conduct astate-wide inventory of the greenhouse gas emissions produced by anthropogenic activity in Hawaii in 1990. The primary fi>cus was on the greenhouse gases cazbon dioxide (C02), methane (CH,), and nitrous oxide (N20). In addition, data on Hawaii emissions of the photochemically important gases cazbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), azid nonmethane volatile organic compounds (NIvIVOCs) were also collected and aze summarized in this report. The inventory is a basis for future efforts to reduce Hawaii's contribution to global warming, which could cause significant future negative effects on Hawaii's environment and economy. The Hawaii greenhouse gas inventory used the yeaz 1990 as its baseline yeaz. The Framework Convention on Climate Change, to which the United States is a party, Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 7-1 set a goal of attempting to reduce emissions to 1990 levels by 2000. While it no longer appears feasible for the United States and other signatories to reach that goal, the year provides a useful baseline for evaluating future efforts to reach future goals. This work is part of the national effort under the Climate Change Action Plan to assist the United States in meeting its goals under the Framework Convention. The Climate Change Action Plan includes initiatives spanning all areas of the economy and focwses on cost-effective reductions. These primarily voluntary initiatives call for cooperation between government, industry, and the public (USEPA, 1995b, iv-v). As will be discusse;d below, an understanding of Hawaii's greenhouse gas emissions is important as a first step toward developing mitigation measures, which will be the second phase of this program. 7.2 Organization of the Study As noted above, the Hawaii inventory was developed jointly by DBEDT and DOH. In addition, other departments participated in the inventory effort by providing data, technical assistance, and review. These departments and their representatives are listed in Appendix A. DBEDT was responsible for the overall management of the project. DBEDT also conducted the inventory for the energy sector sources of Hawaii's greenhouse gas emissions. DOH rnanaged the inventory ofnon-energy anthropogenic emissions, contracting the University of Hawaii Environmental Center to conduct the inventory. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-2 1.3 Greenhouse Gases and Climate Change 1.3.1 The Greenhouse Gases This section is intended to provide the reader with background information on the relationship of the greenhouse gases being inventoried to global climate change. As noted above, the primazy focus is on the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (C02), methane (CH,), and nitrous oxide (NZO). In addition, data on Hawaii emissions of the photochemically important gases cazbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and nonmethane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) aze collected and summarized in this report. The remainder of this section, based closely upon the description in the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, iii), discusses the nature of each of the gases. 1.3.1.2 Description of Greenhouse Gases Carbon diazide. The combustion of liquid, solid, and gaseous fuels is the main anthropogerric source of COZ emissions. Some non-energy processes, notably cement production and biomass burning, also produce CO2. In nature, COZ is cycled between various atmospheric, oceanic, land biotic, and marine biotic reservoirs. The largest fluxes are between the atmosphere and land biota, and between the atmosphere and the surface water of the oceans. There aze also teaestrial non-biotic sources (soils) and crustal (sedimentary rock) sources. Methane. Methane is produced through anaerobic decomposition of organic matter in biological systems. Enteric fermentation in animals, decomposition of animal wastes, and decomposition of municipal solid waste produce methane. Methane is also emitted in the production and distribution of natural gas (synthetic natural gas in Hawaii) and oil and by incomplete fuel combustion. The major sink for methane is its interaction with the hydroxyl radical (OH) in the troposphere. This results in chemical destruction of the methane compound as the Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-3 hydrogen molecules in methane combine with the oxygen in OH to form water vapor (HZO) and C'H,. Aftet a number of other chemical interactions, the remaining CH, turns into CO which itself reacts with OH to produce CO, and hydrogen (H). Nitrous Oxide. A.nthropogenic sources of NZO of concern include use of fertilizers, fossil fiiel combustion, and biomass burning. Halogenated Fluorocarbons, HFCs, and PFCs. Halogenated fluorocarbons aze man-made compouutds that include: chlorofluorocazbons (CFCs), halons, methyl chloroform, cazbo~n tetrachloride, methyl bromide, and hydrochlorofluorocazbons (HCFCs). All of these compounds not only enhance the greenhouse effect, but also contribute to ;stratospheric ozone depletion (USEPA, 1995b, iii). While many of these gases may have been used in Hawaii, none is known to have been manufactured in the state. The United States phased out production and use of all halons, CFCs, HCFCs, and other ozone depleting substances under the 1987 Montreal Protocol and 1992 Copenhagen Amendments (Cook, 1996, 9). Perfluorinated cazlbons (PFCs) and hydrofluorocazbons (HFCs), a family of CFC and HCFC replacements, not covered under the Montreal Protocol, are also powerful greenhouse gases (USEPA, 1995b, iii). 1.3.1.3 Descriptian of Pbotocbemically Important Gases The photochemictilly important gases play a role in increasing production of tropospheric ozone (also known as urban smog). These gases - NOx, CO, and NMVOCs aze known as criteria pollutants and aze regulated under the Clean Air Act of 1970 and subsequent amendments. Ozone itself is both produced and destroyed in the atmosphere through natural processes. Approximately 90 percent resides in the stral:osphere, where it controls the absorption of solaz ultraviolet radiation; the remaining 10 percent is found in the troposphere and could play a significant greenhouse role. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1rt Ozides of Nitrogen. Oxides of nitrogen, NO and NO„ are created from biomass burning, fossil fuel combustion, and are generated in the stratosphere from nitrous oxide. They contribute to formation of owne. Carbon Monoxide. CO is created when carbon-based fuels are burned incompletely. CO elevates concentrations of CH, and tropospheric ozone through chemical reactions with atmospheric constituents (e.g., OH) that would otherwise assist in destroying methane and ozone. It eventually oxidizes to COZ. Noumethane Volatile Orgamic Compounds. NMVOCs include propane, butane, and ethane. They participate, along with NOx, in the formation of ground-level owne and other photochemical oxidants. VOCs are primarily emitted by transportation and industrial processes (USEPA, 1995b, iii). 1.3.2 Climate Change: The Summary for Policymakets The following section on climate change was extracted from Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change, Summary for Policymakers and Technical Summary of the Working Group I Report, published in 1996 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC was jointly established by the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environmental Programme to provide an authoritative international statement of the current understanding of climate change (IPCC, 1996, 2). The Summary for Policymakers, approved in detail at the fifth session of the IPCC Working Group I in Madrid, 27-29 November 1995, represents the IPCC's formally agreed statement on the current understanding of the science of climate change (7). While there are many who disagree with elements or all of the IPCC statement, it is supported by the United States government and is the basis for the actions taken in the United States Climate Action Program. As a basis for understanding the need to inventory greenhouse gases, a major excerpt of the Summary for Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-5 Policymakers is presented here (including its use of British spelling). While the summary also discussed CFCs, HCFCs, and other aerosols, those sections aze not included below as Hawaii is not a manufacturer of such gases. Their use in Hawaii is being phased out as specified by United States law. The excerpt focuses on the principal greenhouse gases discussed in this report: CO2, CH„ and N2O. Summary for Policymakers Considerable progress has been made in the understanding of climate change science' Greenhouse gas concentrations Gave continued to increase Increases in greenhouse gas concentrations since pre-industrial times (i.e., since about 1750) have led to a positive radiative . forcing z of climate, tending to warm the surface and to produce other changes of climate. • The atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, inter alia cazbon dioxide (COZ), methane (CH,) and nitrous oxide (NZO) have grown significantly: by about 30%, 145% and 15% respectively (values for 1992). These trends can be attributed lazgely to human activities, mostly fossil fuel use, land-use change, and agriculture. • The growth rates of COZ, CH, and NZO concentrations were low during the eazly 1990s. While this appazently natural variation is not yet fully explained, recent data indicate that the growth rates aze currently comparable to those averaged over the 1980s. • The direct radiative forcing of the long-lived greenhouse gases (2.45 V17m 2) is due primarily to increases in COZ (1.56 Wm 2), CH, (0.47 Mm"Z) and NZO (0.14 Wm z) (values for 1992). Climate change in the IPPC \Norking Group 1 usage refers to any change in climate over time whether due to natural variability or as e~ result of human activity. This differs from the usage in the Framework Convention on Climate Change where climate change refers to a change of climate which is attributed dvectly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. : A simple measure of the importance of a potential climate change mechanism. Ratiative forcing is the perturbation to the energy balance of the Earth-atmosphere system (in watts per square metre [Wm z]) Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-6 • Many greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere for a long time (for COZ and NZO, many decades to centuries), hence they affect radiative forcing on long time-scales... . • If cazbon dioxide emissions were maintained at near current (1994) levels, they would lead to a neazly constant rate of increase in atmospheric concentrations for at least two centuries, reaching about 500 ppmv [parts per million by volume] (approaching twice the pre-industrial concentration of 280 ppmv) by the end of the 21" century. • A range of cazbon cycle models indicates that stabiisation of atmospheric COZ concentrations at 450, 650, or 1000 ppmv could be achieved only if global anthropogenic COZ emissions drop to 19901evels by, respectively, approximately 40, 140 or 240 yeazs from now, and drop below 19901evels subsequently. • Any eventual stabilised concentration is governed more by the accumulated anthropogenic COZ emissions from now until the time of stabilisation, than by the way those emissions change over the period. This means that, for a given stabilised concentration value, higher emissions in eazly decades require lower emissions later on . • Stabilisation of CH, and Nz0 emissions at today's levels would involve reductions of 8% and more than 50% respectively... . Climate has changed over the past century At. any one location yeaz-to-yeaz variations in weather can be lazge, but analyses of meteorological and other data over lazge azeas and over periods of decades or more have produced evidence for some irnportant systematic changes. • Global mean surface air temperature has increased by between about 0.3 and 0.6°C since the late 19`" century; the additional data available since 1990 and the re-analyses since then have not significantly changed this range of estimated increase. • Recent years have been among the wazmest since 1860, i.e., in the period of instrumental record, despite the cooling effect of the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo volcanic eruption. • Night-time temperatures over land have generally increased more than daytime temperatures. • Regional changes aze also evident. For example, the recent warming has been greatest over the mid-latitude continents in winter and spring, with a few azeas of cooling, such as the North Atlantic Ocean. Precipitation has increased over land in Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-7 high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, especially in the cold season. • Global sea level has risen by between 10 and 25 cm [3.9 to 9.75 inches] over the past 100 years and much of the rise may be related to the increase in global mean temperature. • There aze inadequate data to determine whether consistent global changes in climate variability or weather extremes have occurred over the 20'" century. On regional scales there is cleaz evidence of changes in some extremes and climate variability indicators (e.g., fewer frosts in several widespread areas; an increase in the proportion of rainfall from extreme events over the contiguous states of the USA). Some of these changes have been toward greater variability; some have been towazd lower variability. • The 1990 to mid-1995 persistent wazm-phase of the EI Nino- Southem Oscillation (which causes droughts and floods in many areas) was unusual in the context of the last 120 yeazs. The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate Any human-induced effect on climate will be superimposed on the background "noise" of natural climate variability, which results both from internal fluctuations and from external causes such as solaz variability or volcanic eruptions. Detection and attribution studies attempt to distinguish between anthropogenic and natural influences. "Detection of change" is the process of demonstrating that an observed change in climate is highly unusual in a statistical sense, but does not provide a reason for that change. "Attribution" is the process of establishing cause and effect relations, including the testing of competing hypotheses. Since the 1990 IPCC Report, considerable progress has been made in attempts to distinguish between natural and anthropogenic influences on climate. This progress has been achieved by including effects of sulphate aerosols in addition to greenhouse gases, thus leading to more realistic estimates ofhuman-induced radiative forcing. These have been used in climate models to provide more complete simulations of the human-induced climate change "signal." In addition, new simulations with coupled atmospheric-ocean models have provided important information about decade to century time-scale natural intemal climate variability. A further major azea of progress is the shift of focus from studies of global-mean changes to comparisons of modeled and observed spatial and temporal patterns of climate change. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-8 The most important results related to the issues of detection and attribution are: • The limited available evidence from proxy climate indicators suggests that the 20i6 century global mean temperature is at least as warm as any other century since at least 1400 AD. Data prior to 1400 AD are too sparse to allow the reliable estimation of global mean temperature. • Assessments of the statistical significance of the observed global mean surface temperature trend over the last century have used a variety of new estimates of natural internal and externally forced variability. These are derived from instrumental data, palaeodata, simple and complex climate models, and statistical models fitted to observations. Most of these studies have detected a significant change and show that the observed warming trend is unlikely to be entirely natural in origin. • More convincing recent evidence for the attribution of a human effect on climate is emerging from pattern-based studies, in which the modeled climate response to combined forcing by greenhouse gases and anthropogenic sulphate aerosols is compared with observed geographical, seasonal and vertical patterns of atmospheric temperature change. These studies show that such pattern correspondences increase with time, as one would expect as an anthropogenic signal increases in strength. Furthermore, the probability is very low that these correspondences could occur by chance as a result of natural internal variability only. The vertical patterns of change aze also inconsistent with those expected for solar and volcanic forcing. • Our ability to quantify the human influence on global climate is currently limited because the expected signal is still emerging from the noise of natural variability, and because there aze uncertainties in key factors. These include the magnitude and patterns of long-term natural variability and the time-evolving pattern of forcing by, and response to, changes in concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, and land surface changes. Nevertheless, the balance of evidence suggests that there is a discernible human influence on global climate. Climate is expected to continue to change in the future The IPCC has a developed a range of scenarios, IS92a-f, of future greenhouse gas and aerosol precursor emissions based on Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-9 J assumptions concerning population and economic growth, land- use, technological changes, energy availability and fuel mix during the period 1990 to 2100. Through understanding of the global climate cycle and of atmospheric chemistry, these emissions can be used to project atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols and the perturbation of natural radiative forcing. Climate models can then be used to develop projections of future climate. • The increasing realism of simulations of current and past climate by coupled atmosphere-ocean climate models has increased our confidence in their use for projection of future climate change. Important uncertainties remain, but these have been taken into account in the full range of projections of global mean temperature and sea level change. • For the mid-range IPCC emission scenario, IS92a, assuming the "best estimate" value of climate sensitivity' and including the effects of future increases in aerosol, models project an increase in global mean surface air temperature relative to 1900 of about 2°C [3.6°F] by 2100. This is due primarily to lower emission scenarios (particulazly for COZ and the CFCs), the inclusion of the cooling effect of sulphate aerosols, and improvements in the treatment of the cazbon cycle. Combining the lowest IPCC emission scenario (IS92c) with a "low" value of climate sensitivity and including the effects of future changes in aerosol concentrations leads to a projected increase of about 1°C [1.8°F] by 2100. The corresponding projection for the highest IPCC scenario (IS92e) combined with a "high" value of climate sensitivity gives a warming of about 3.5°C [6.3°F]. In all cases the average rate of wazming would probably be greater than any seen in the last 10,000 yeazs, but the actual annual to decadal changes would include considerable natural variability. Regional temperature changes could differ substantially from the global mean value. Because of the thermal inertia of the oceans, only 50-90% of the eventual equilibrium temperature change would have been realized by 2100 and temperature would continue to increase beyond 2100, even if concentrations of greenhouse gases were stabilised by that time. ' In IPCC reports, climate sensitivity usually refers to the long term (equilibrium) change in global mean surface temperature following a doubling of atmospheric equivalent COz concentration. More generally, it refers to the equilibrium change in surface av temperature following a unit change in radiative forcing (C/Wm z). Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-10 • Average sea level is expected to rise as a result of thermal expansion of the ocean and melting of glaciers and ice-sheets. For the IS92a scenario, assuming the "best estimate" values of climate sensitivity and of ice melt intensity to warming, and including the effects of future changes in aerosol, models project an increase in sea level of about 50 cm [19.5 inches] from the present to 2100. This estimate is approximately 25% lower than the "best estimate" in 1990 due to the lower temperature projection, but also reflecting improvements in the climate and ice melt models. Combining the lowest emission scenario (IS92c) with the "low" climate and ice melt sensitivities and including aerosol effects gives a projected sea level rise of about 15 cm [5.85 inches] from the present to 2100. The corresponding projection for the highest emission scenarios (IS92e) combined with the "high" climate and ice melt sensitivities gives a sea level rise of about 95 cm [37.05 inches] from the present to 2100. Sea level would continue to rise at a similar rate in future centuries beyond 2100 even if concentrations of greenhouse gases were stabilized by that time, and would continue to do so even beyond the time of stabilisation of global mean temperature. Regional sea level changes may differ from the global mean value owing to land movement and ocean current changes. • Confidence is higher in the hemispheric-to-continental scale projections of coupled atmosphere-ocean climate models than in the regional projections, where confidence remains low. There is more confidence in temperature projections than hydrological changes... . • A general warming is expected to lead to an increase in the occur ence of extremely hot days and a decrease in the occurrence of extremely cold days. • Warmer temperatures will lead to a more vigorous hydrological cycle; this translates into prospects for more severe droughts and/or floods in some places and less severe droughts and/or floods in other places. Several models indicate an increase in precipitation intensity, suggesting a possibility for more extreme rainfall events. Knowledge is currently insufficient to say whether there will be any changes in the occurrence or geographic distribution of severe storms, e.g., tropical cyclones. • Sustained rapid climate change could shift the competitive balance among species and even lead to forest dieback, altering the terrestrial uptake and release of carbon. The magnitude is Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-11 uncertain, but could be between zero and 200 GtC [gigs-tonnes of carbon] over the next one to two centuries. There are still many uncertainties Many factors currently limit our ability to project and detect future climate change. In particulaz, to reduce uncertainties further work is needed on the following priority topics. • estimation of future emissions and biogeochemical cycling (including sources and sinks) of greenhouse gases, aerosols and aerosol precursors and projections of future concentrations and radiative properties; • representation of climate processes in models, especially feedbacks associated with clouds, oceans, sea ice and vegetation, in order to improve projections of rates and regional patterns of climate change; • systematic collection of long-term instrumental and proxy observations of climate system variables (e.g., solar output, atmospheric energy balance components, hydrological cycles, ocean characteristics and ecosystem changes) for the purposes of model testing, assessment of temporal and regional variability and for detection and attribution studies. Future unexpected, large and rapid climate system changes (as have occurred in the past) are, by their nature, difficult to predict. This implies that future climate changes may also involve "surprises.." In particulaz these arise fonn the non-lineaz nature of the climate system. When rapidly forced, non-linear systems are especially subject to unexpected behavior. Progress can be made by investigating non-linear processes and sub-components of the climatic system. Examples of such non-lineaz behavior include rapid circulation changes in the North Atlantic and feedbacks associated with terrestrial ecosystem changes. (IPCC, 1996, 8-13) 1.4 Potential Effects on Hawaii In 1995, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group II completed a "review of the state of knowledge concerning climate change on physical and economic systems, human health and socio-economic sectors" (United Nations, 1.995). The following is based upon the Summary for Policy Makers: Scientifrc-Technical Analysis oflmpacts, Adaptations and Mitigations of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-12 Climate Change (United Nations, 1995) which is available on the United Nations Environmental Programme website at www.unep.ch/ipcc/wg2..htm1. The IPPC report discussed a wide range of potential vulnerabilities to climate change faced by human societies. They note that the stresses posed by human- induced climate change add an important additional stress to ecological and socio- economic systems already affected by pollution, increasing resource demands and nonsustainable management practices. The report addresses effects on agriculture and food security; sea levels, oceans, and coastal areas; biological diversity and ecosystems; water resources; human health; infrastructure, industry, and human settlement; and climatic disasters and extreme events. (United Nations, 1995) Hawaii, directly or indirectly, is potentially vulnerable to negative effects in each of these areas. While the IPPC report did not specifically address Hawaii's vulnerabilities and a scientific assessment of Hawaii's vulnerabilities is beyond the scope of this report, the following is a brief summary of global warming- induced climate change effects which may impact Hawaii as suggested by IPCC Working Group II. • Forests. Models suggest that a sustained increase of 1 degree C in global mean temperature could cause climate changes which would affect forest growth. The greatest changes will be at high latitudes, and tropical azeas (such as Hawaii) would be least affected. • Caastal systems. As an island state, Hawaii is highly vulnerable to potential impacts on coastal systems. "Climate change and a rise in sea level or changes in storms and storm surges could result in erosion of shores and associated habitat, increased salinity of estuaries and freshwater aquifers, altered tidal ranges in rivers and bays, changes in sediment and nutrient transport, a change in the pattern of chemical and microbiological contamination in coastal azeas, and increased coastal flooding. Some coastal ecosystems aze particulazly at risk, including . . .coral reefs ....Changes in these ecosystems would have major negative effects on toiuism, freshwater supplies, fisheries, and biodiversity"(United Nations, 1995). Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-13 • Oceans. Hawaii's ocean resources are important to its economy. According to Working Group II, "Climate change will lead to changes in sea level, increasing it on average, and also could lead to altered ocean circulation, vertical mixing, wave climate and reductions in sea-ice cover. As a result, nutrient availability, biological productivity, the structure and functions of marine ecosystems, and heat and cazbon storage capacity may be affected, with important feedbacks to the climate system. These changes would have implications for coastal regions, fisheries, tourism and recreation, transport, off-shore structures, and communication"(United Nations, 1995). • Fisheries. Globally, Working Group II projects that marine fisheries production is expected to remain about the same. Principal impacts will be at local levels as species mix and centers of production shift. The specific effects on Hawaii are not clear from the report; however, this issue warrants further study. • Human Infrastructure. "Climate change and resulting sea-level rise can have a number of negative impacts on energy, industry, and transportation infrastructure; human settlements; the property insurance industry; tourism; and cultural systems and values" (United Nations, 1995). Potential effects on Hawaii include climate change effects on energy demand and renewable energy production (such as hydroelectricity and biomass). Transportation infrastructure and settlements will be more vulnerable to flooding and coastal erosion. Property insurance is vulnerable to extreme climate events, as Hawaii homeowners found after Hurricane Iniki when hurricane coverage became neazly impossible to obtain until the state set up a program. As noted above, however, "knowledge is currently insufficient to say whether there will be any changes in the occurrence or geographic distribution of severe storms, e.g., tropical cyclones" (IPCC, 1996, 12). Climate change could also make Hawaii less of a paradise for visitors, depending upon temperature effects on weather, particulazly extreme weather. • Human Health. While no specific vulnerabilities aze necessarily indicated for Hawaii, direct health effects could include increases in mortality and illness due to an anticipated increase in the intensity and duration of heat waves. Increased exposure to other diseases which may be inadvertently brought to Hawaii and rr~ay be supported by a wazmer climate are possibilities. The preceding summary is only a cursory look at some of the potential impacts which Hawaii may face. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-14 i 1.5 Energy Use Sector Definitions Used in This Report The section of this study which examines greenhouse gas emissions produced by energy use in Hawaii analyzes these emissions by sector. The sectors include the residential, commercial, industrial, electricity, and transportation sectors. While electricity is used in the residential, commercial, and industrial sectors, the greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation for sale to customers in these sectors is reported in the electricity sector, not by end use. The electricity sector includes greenhouse gases emitted from generators operated by the electric utilities and by independent power producers which operate primarily to produce electricity for sale to the electric utilities. Industrial cogenerators, notably sugaz mills, which also produce electricity, but primarily for their own use aze reported in the industrial sector despite the fact that they also sell significant amounts of electricity to the electric utilities. The following sector definitions, modified to include independent power producers in the electricity sector aze based upon those used in the U.S. Department of Energy, State Energy Data Report 1993 (USDOE, 1995b), and will be used in this report: 1.5.1 Residential Sector The residential sector is considered to consist of all private residences, whether occupied or vacant, owned or rented, including single-family homes, multifamily housing units, and mobile homes. Secondary homes, such as summer homes, aze also included. Institutional housing, such as school dormitories, hospitals, and militazy bazracks, generally is not included in the residential sector; however, it is included in the commercial sector. 1.5.2 Commercial Sector The commercial sector consists of business establishments that aze not engaged in transportation or in manufacturing or other types of industrial activity (agriculture, mining, or construction). Commercial establishments include hotels, motels, restaurant:;, wholesale businesses, retail stores, laundries and other service Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-15 i enterprises; religious and non-profit organizations; health, social, and educational institutions, and federal, state, and county governments. Street lights, pumps, bridges, and public services are also included if the establishment operating them is considered commercial. 1.5.3. Industrial Sector The industrial sector comprises manufacturing industries, which make up the lazgest part of the sector, along with mining, construction, agriculture, fisheries, and forestry. In Hawaii, establishments in this sector range from sugar plantations to small farms to a wide variety of light industries. 1.5.4 Electricity Sector The electricity sector in Hawaii consists of privately owned establishments that generate, transmit, distribute, or sell electricity primarily for use by the public and aze regulated by the State of Hawaii Public Utilities Commission. Independent power producers which produce electricity and sell their production to the utilities, are included in this sector. 1.5.5 Transportation Sector The transportation sector consists of private and public vehicles that move people and commodities. These include automobiles, trucks, buses, motorcycles, aircraft, ships, and bazges. 1.6 Additional Work Performed in Phase I In addition to the inventory included in this report, DBEDT contracted with Systematic Solutions, Inc. (SSI), to calibrate the ENERGY 2020 computer model of Hawaii's energy system to provide greenhouse gas emissions forecasts for use in testing the effects of energy sector greenhouse gas mitigation policies to be developed in the second phase. The ENERGY 2020 model is linked with an economic model developed by Regional Economic Models, Inc. (the REMI Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-16 model). Tlils will also enable economic effects of mitigation measures to be forecast. The model was calibrated and a baseline forecast was prepared. 1.7 Next Steps In Phase II of Hawaii's Greenhouse Gas Program, a Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategy will be developed which will include a 20-yeaz reduction strategy and 5-yeaz action plan designed to reduce Hawaii's greenhouse gas emissions. Based upon the inventory of 1990 emissions and the forecast of future emissions developed in Phase I, the Phase II study will examine potential greenhouse gas mitigation actions and policies, determine their costs and benefits, and provide recommended priorities for implementation of greenhouse gas emissions reductions plans. The Phase :[I effort will also develop a technical review and public involvement process to take advantage of scientific and technical expertise in Hawaii and which will ensure open, public participation, especially in the policy development and evaluation components of the project. The ultimate objective will be to integrate the relevant portions of the 20-year strategy and the 5-yeaz action plan into appropriate state agencies' functional plans and the Hawaii Energy Strategy. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1-17 a CHAPTER 2 1990 HAWAII GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS 2.1 Overview This chapter presents a summary of Hawaii's estimated emissions of the greenhouse gases cazbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, and the photochemically important greenhouse gas precursors nitrogen oxides, cazbon monoxide, and non-methane volatile organic compounds in 1990. The calculation of these estimates is detailed in subsequent chapters of this report. All tonnages are in English (avoirdupois) short tons. These weights aze in terms of compounds, not elements (e.g., CO= rather than C). While some calculations aze carried out: to several decimal points, the basis of such calculations is often an estimate and should not be considered necessarily accurate to that level. 2.2 Estimated 7990 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions Table 2.1 summarizes Hawaii's 1990 greenhouse gas emissions. a e s ma reen ouse as missions m awau, _ (Tons) SectodPuel Net CO= CH, N=O Energy Use Residential Sector 94,760 2 N/A Commercial Sector 278,767 6 13 Industrial Sector 816,606 27 391 Electricity Sector 7,647,046 109 13 Transportation Sector 5,914,370 18,460 505 Subtotal 14,751,549 18,604 922 Non-Energy Sources Oillndustry N/A 237 N/A Cement Industry 109,274 N/A N/A MSW Management 189,684 53,490 N/A Wastewater Treatment N/A 1,027 N/A Domestic Animals N/A 13,368 N!A Manure Management N/A 6,056 N/A Sugarcane Burning N/A 543 8 Fertilizer N/A N/A 196 Changes in Biomass (415,158) N/A N/A Abandoned Lands (519,237) N/A N/A Subtotal (635,437) 74,721 204 Total 14,116,112 93,325 1,126 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-1 d As depicted on Table 2.1, an estimated 14,116,112 tons of C02, 93,325 tons of CH„ and 1,126 tons ofNzO comprised Hawaii greenhouse gas emissions in 1990. These emissions were produced by energy uses, industrial processes in the oil and cement industries, and non-energy sources within the state. COz emissions from the burning of bagasse, macadamia nut shells, and wood chips to generate electricity and process heat aze not included in this total as those fuels sequester similaz amounts of COZ in the growing stage and aze assumed to be replanted. In addition, the estimate does not include exports, overseas uses or militazy uses of fuels sold, distributed, or refined in Hawaii. The reasons for the exclusion of these quantities of fuel aze explained in detail in the discussion of Hawaii's energy system in Section 3.2. A summary of emissions from overseas and military is provided in Section 2.4. a e ercen on u on o s ma reen Ouse as Emissions in Hawaii, 1990 SectorlFUOI Net CO= CH, N=O Energy Use Residential Sector 1% 0.002% N/A Commercial Sector 2°/, 0.01% 1% Industrial Sector 5% 0.03% 35% Electricity Sector 51 % 0.1 % 1 Transportation Sector 39°k 20% 45% Subtotal 98% 20% 82% Non-Energy Sources Oil Industry 0.3% Cement Industry 1% MSW Management 1% 57% Wastewater Treatment 1 Domestic Animals 14% Manure Management 8% Sugarcane Burning 1°/, 1% Fertilizer 17% Subtotal 2% 80% 18% TOtal 100% 100°/a 100% • Wz uptake rwt inGUtletl In camputefion of percentage contribWon to Hawaii GHG enuuiona Table 2.2 summarizes the percentage contribution of each source to the estimated greenhouse gas emissions. Hawaii's energy sector cleazly dominated production of COZ and NZO, while non-energy sources led in CH, production. The uptake of COZ caused by changes in biomass and by abandoned lands aze negative as shown Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-2 on Table 2.1, but these are not included in this table as the focus is on COZ production by human activities in Hawaii. 2.3. Estimated Global Warming Potential of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions Global Warming Potential, or GWP, is used to compaze the relative effects of each of the different greenhouse gases on radiative forcing of the atmosphere over some future time horizon. To do this, an index is needed which translates the level of emissions of each gas into a common metric. The index used in this report will convert CH, and NZO emissions into their CO2 equivalent. This is the methodology used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as recommended by the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, vii). The IPCC method is a comparison of the radiative forcing effect of the concurrent emission into the atmosphere of an equal quantity of COz and another greenhouse gas. Each gas has a different instantaneous effect and the atmospheric concentration of each gas declines at a different rate over time. In general, other greenhouse gases have a much stronger instantaneous radiative effect than CO2, but COZ has a longer atmospheric lifetime and slower decay rate. The atmospheric concentrations of some greenhouse gases may decline due to atmospheric chemical processes, which in tum create other greenhouse gases or contribute to their creation or longevity. These indirect effects aze uncertain and will not be included in calculating the Hawaii GWP (vii). GWP is defined as "the time-integrated commitment to climate forcing from the instantaneous release of 1 kilogram of trace gas expressed relative to that from 1 kilogram of cazbon dioxide" (viii). The value is time sensitive and, for the purposes of this report, a 100-yeaz time horizon was used. Over this time period, CH, has 22 times the radiative forcing direct impact as CO2, and N2O has 270 times the direct impact (viii). Thus, to calculate GWP of Hawaii's 1990 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-3 emissions of these greenhouse gases, CH4 emissions in tons were multiplied by 22 and NZO emissions in tons were multiplied by 270 to yield tons COZ equivalent. Table 2.3 Global Warming Potential of Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Hawaii, 1990 (Tons COZ equivalent) Sector COZ CH4 N=O Total Energy Use Residential Sector 94,760 33 N/A 94,793 Commercial Sector 278,767 132 3,522 282,421 Industrial Sector 816,608 594 N/A 817,200 Electric Utility Sector 7,847,048 2,398 3,524 7,652,968 Transportation Sector 5,914,370 406,120 136,342 6,456,832 Subtotal 14,751,549 409,277 143,388 15,304,213 Non-Energy Sources Oillndustry N/A 5,214 N/A 5,214 Cement Industry 109,274 N/A N/A 109,274 MSW Management 189,684 1,176,780 N/A 1,386,464 Wastewater Treatment N/A 22,594 N/A 22,594 Domestic Animals N/A 294,096 N/A 294,096 Manure Management N/A 133,232 N/A 133,232 Sugarcane Burning N/A 11,946 2,160 14,106 Fertilizer N/A N/A 52,920 52,920 Subtotal 298,958 1,643,882 55,080 1,997,900 0 Percent 87X '12°k 1°/. 100°~ Table 2.3 presents the GWP of COZ, CH4, and N20 emissions in Hawaii, in 1990 which were the equivalent of 17,302,113 tons of C02. This value was not reduced by the amount of COZ uptake from changes and biomass and uptake by abandoned lands since the focus is on emissions as a basis for future consideration of mitigation measures. The GWP of each of Hawaii's emission sources is important as it allows comparison of sources which emit different greenhouse gases and will assist in identifying azeas for focus in developing greenhouse gas mitigation measures. In Figure 2.1, a comparison of the relative GWP of the amounts of the three major greenhouse gases emitted in Hawaii in 1990 is depicted. COZ emissions were 87% of Hawaii's greenhouse gas emissions, followed by CH4 at 12% and Nz0 at 1 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2~d a Figure 2.1 Global Warming Contribution of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 1990 N10 ~ t% 12% -~h CO= 87% Figure 2.2 shows the result of a comparison of the relative GWP of Hawaii greenhouse gas emissions by source category. Figure 2.2 Global Warming CoMMbution of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Source Category, 1890 Waste MenegemeriAlXk~ur ~ e 396 kdustriel Processes ' I 1% i i`I ' ill': I j;l dl ~I jl'I' ' I j I: jl'njj: I~ j ,j I,h{ I I I I' ~I~It~I I n~' j fl if ~ ~ ~~j~ I'I~iji::„:li I jj I Ij I ~:;:;::li~jj#; '~~ir:l:i~li~~i :II,` III ~ ~:n Ij!ili: I ~I I ili dl Id~ll:lli':~j~ I'~ lip I: Ij;:: I~: li'I;I~~, I,il. ij' ~ ~ ~ jl, I . i ~ III I i j ~ ~ ~ II,~ ~ ~ j~ I I U I ''Iii! Ij I I I ~~j ~ Ij ~!I~~J,I ' ~.i~l,~~ ~ ij li~:f': , Energy Use 8896 Hawail Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-5 s Energy use emissions dominated at 88%. Waste management, which includes municipal solid waste management and wastewater treatment, was in second place at 8%. The various agricultural sources, including domestic animals, manure management systems, sugarcane burning, and fertilizer use contributed 3% to GWP. Finally, industrial processes in oil refining and cement industries created 1 % of Hawaii's GWP. Figure 2.3 Global Warming Contribution of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector, 1880 Res. Energy Irdustriel Energy t% Waste Mgml. 3% a Comm. Energy 5% hdustriel 8~' Rocesses ~i~ ~fl0\ I t' ~„^'1\ ~ t% Trergp°a1Mion Ebctrlctiy E„e,gy 43% 37% In Figure 2.3, above, another, more detailed view of GWP is presented, this time by sector. In this breakout, electricity generation produced 43% of GWP, followed by the transportation energy sector at 37%, waste management at 8%, industrial energy use at 5%, agriculture at 3%, and commercial energy uses at 2% were significant. 'The remaining sectors -residential energy, and industrial processes in the cement and oil refining industries each contributed less than one percent to total GWP (rounded on Figure 2.3 to 1%). Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-6 a Figure 2.4 summarizes the relative contribution to COQ emissions by sector. Again, the electricity and transportation sectors cleazly dominate; they produced 51 % and 39% of CO, emissions, respectively. Industrial energy accounted for 5% and commercial energy was 2%. Other uses, including waste management, the cement industry, and residential energy use combined contributed about 3% to Hawaii's total C02 emissions. Figure 2.4 Hawaii Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Sector, 7980 CommerdN Energy 2% Trensporteti°n Energy 39% EbdridtY 51% ~I Other 3% Industrial Energy 5% Figure 2.5, on the next page, summarizes the sources of methane emissions. Waste management produced 59%, transportation energy produced 20%, agriculture (primarily ruminant domestic animals and manure management) emitted 21 Other energy sources were responsible for only 0.5% of CH, emissions. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-7 s Figure 2.5 Hawaii Methane Emissions by Sector, 1990 OtFier 0.4% Tronaportdfon ,q~~~e Energy 21 % I 2096 NAade Menegemert 5996 The lazgest shaze of N20 emissions, as depicted on Figure 2.6., was produced by transportation energy sources (45%). Industrial energy sector (35%) and Figure 2.6 Hawali NRrous Oxide Emissions by Sector, 1990 Commercial Energy Ag'ICURue 7% 1896 ~ I FMustrid Energy ~ I 35% Elechicity Transportdion ~ % Energy 45% Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-8 a emissions from agriculture (18%) were also significant, The commercial energy sector and the electricity sector contributed about one percent each to total Hawaii N20 emissions in 1990. 2.4. Estimated Greenhouse Gas Precursor Emissions In this inventory, emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO,), carbon monoxide (CO), and non-methane volatile organic compounds were estimated. These are known as photochemically important gases, or tropospheric ozone precursors. Throughout the remainder of this report, they will be referred to as precursor gases. Although these are not greenhouse gases, they contribute indirectly to the greenhouse effect. They influence the rate at which ozone and other gases are created and destroyed in the atmosphere. NO, contributes to the formation of ozone in the upper atmosphen;. CO elevates concentrations of CH, and atmospheric ozone through chemical reactions with atmospheric constituents which would otherwise destroy CH4 and ozone. It eventually oxidizes to COZ. NMVOCs participate along with nitrogen oxides in the formation of ground-level ozone and other photochemical oxidants (iJSEPA, 1995b, iii). Table 2.4 Estlmatsd Prseursor Gas Emissions In Hawail, 1990 Emissions In Tons Psresnt of Em_iulons _ Seetor/Fwl NO, CO NMVOC NO, CO NMVOC Energy Use Residential Sector 72 15 N/A 0.1% 0.01°h WA Commercial Sector 16 47 0.4 0.03% 0.03% 0% Industrial Sector 4,570 1,883 2,635 7°h 1% t2% Eledriaty Sector 30,218 3,347 626 49°~ 2°k 3°~ Transportation Sector 28,968 110,954 18,327 44% 72.0% 85°h Subtotal 61,844 116,247 21,589 99.8% 75°h 100% IndusVlal Processes None Reported Non•Energy Sourees MSW Management N/A 27,101 WA WA N/A N/A Sugarcane Burning 140 10,657 NIA 0.2% 7°k WA Subtotal 140 37,958 NIA 0.2% 25% N/A Total 61,984 754,205 21,589 100°h 700°h 100°~ Table 2.4 details the amounts of each gas emitted in tons and the relative percentage contribution of each source. These emissions will not be included global warming potential as a conversion factor was not available from the State Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-9 • Workbook. Virtually all NOx and NMVOC emissions came from Hawaii's energy sector. The energy sector also produced just over three-quazters of CO emissions. 2.5 Estimated Emissions from Overseas and Military Uses As noted in Section 2.2, above, the estimate of Hawaii greenhouse and precursor gas emissions did not include overseas or militazy uses of aviation and marine fuel or exports of fuel sold, distributed, or refined in Hawaii. The reasons for the exclusion of these quantities of fuel are explained in detail in the discussion of Hawaii's energy system in Section 3.2. Overseas uses included jet fuel for overseas commercial airline flights, distillate and residual fuel oil used for bunkering ships in overseas operations in Hawaii ports, and distillate and fuel oil exported from Hawaii. Military uses in mobile sources were excluded due to a lack of data on location and amount of actual use. To provide a complete record of greenhouse gas and tropospheric precursor gas emissions of all fuels sold, distributed, or refined in Hawaii, the emissions from overseas and militazy uses were calculated and aze presented in Table 2.5. Table 2.5 Estimated Overseas and Military Emissions, 1990 ons) Fuel CO= CH, NZO NO, CO NMVOC Overseas Use Distillate 807,253 12 39,790 599 Jet Fuel 5,140,742 143 20,836 8,790 1,302 Residual 1,032,705 13 43,074 649 6,980,700 143 25 103,700 10,038 1,302 Military Use Avgas 589 0.02 0.01 3 1 0.2 Distillate 388,078 22 11 6,439 2,041 486 Gasoline 26,416 2 1 451 143 34 Jet Fuel 709,780 20 2,877 1,214 180 Residual 69,349 N/A 1 2,876 40 N/A 1,194,212 44 13 12,446 3,439 700 Overseas and Military Greenhouse and Precursor Gas Emissions by Fuel Avgas 589 0 0 3 1 0 Distillate 1,195,331 23 46,229 2,640 Gasoline 2E,416 2 1 451 143 34 Jet Fuel 5,850,522 163 23,713 10,004 1,482 Residual 1,102,054 14 45,750 689 8,174,912 165 38 116,146 13,477 1,516 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-10 The global warming potential was calculated for COZ, CH„ and N=O emissions from overseas and military fuel use, as presented on Table 2.6. The total GWP was equivalent to 8,188,805 tons CO,. Table 2.6 Overseas and Military Greenhouse Gas Emissions Global Warming Potsrdfal, 7890 (Tons) Fuel COs CHI N=O Total Overeeas Use Distillate 807,253 3,240 810,493 Jet Fuel 5,140,742 3,146 5,143,888 Residual 1,032,705 3,510 1,036,215 Subtotal 8,980,700 3,146 6,750 6,990,596 Milftary Use Avgas 589 0.4 3 592 Distillate 388,078 464 2,970 391,532 Gasoline 26,416 44 270 26,730 Jet Fuel 709,780 440 710,220 Residual 69,349 270 69,619 Subtotal 1,194,212 968 3,513 1,198,693 Total Overseas and Military Greenhouse Gas GWP by Fuel Avgas 589 0.4 3 592 Distillate 1,195,331 6,210 1,201,541 Gasoline 26,416 44 270 26,730 Jet Fuel 5,850,522 3,586 5,854,108 Residual 1,102,054 3,780 1,105,834 Total 8,174,912 3,630 10,263 8,188,805 When added to the 17,302,113 tons of COZ equivalent GWP of the emissions from in-state fuel use, industrial processes, and non-energy sector activities, the total GWP from all fuels sold, distributed, or refined in Hawaii was 25,491,402 tons of COZ equivalent. As Table 2.6 and Figure 2.7 show, of that total, overseas uses of Hawaii origin fuels emitted 6,990,596 tons of COZ equivalent, or 27% of total GWP. Military uses produced 1,198,693 tons of COZ equivalent, or 5% of GWP from all sources. All in-state greenhouse gas emission sources produced a GWP of 17,302,113 tons, or 68% of the total. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-11 • Figure 2.7 Relative Contributions to GWP of Hawaii Sources and Hawaiforigin Fue1s,1990 Mi'dary 5% -__r oversees 27% Hawa6 v~---~-: 6B% 2.6 Comparison of Estimated Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions With Selected States The global warming potential of total United States emissions of CO2, CH„ and NZO in 1990 was 6,235,116,000 tons of COZ equivalent (USEPA, 1994, ES-3). Hawaii's GWP of 17,302,113 tons of COZ equivalent was 28/100 of one percent of that total. Table 2.7 compares Hawaii's GWP in tons of CO2 equivalent with the GWP of eleven other states which have completed greenhouse gas inventories under the EPA's State and Local Outreach Program. The GWP in pounds of COZ equivalent per capita, based on 1990 resident population and in pounds of CO, equivalence per clollaz of 1990 Gross State Product (GSP) is also presented as a basis of comparison. It should be noted that Hawaii's 1990 de facto population of 1,257,000, which is 114% of its resident population of 1,101,000, was used to calculate emissions produced in many of the categories in this report. However, in the absence of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-12 • facto population data from other states, and recognizing that the emissions produced by visitors to Hawaii aze an integral part of Hawaii's economy and environment, it seems logical to evaluate overall per capita emissions on the basis of resident population. Table 2.7 Comparison of tha Global Warming Potential of Emissions Produced by Selected States, 1980 (MIIlions of Tons C02 Equivalent) Source HAWAII Alabama 1 Illinois = Indiana Z Kentucky' Energy Sector 15.3 140.7 219.5 233.1 130.6 Industrial Processes 0.1 2.9 9.2 6.8 62.6 Waste Management 1.4 6.9 12.3 7.3 2.9 Agriculture 0.5 3.8 10.7 6.8 5.0 Total 17.3 154.3 251.7 253.8 201.1 1990 Resident Population 1,108,000 4,041,000 11,431,000 5,544,000 3,685,000 Lbs. C02 Equiv./Capita 15.6 38.2 22.0 45.8 54.6 1990 GSP 29 70 272 112 67 Lbs. C02 Equiv./$GSP 1.2 4.4 1.9 4.5 6.0 Source Minnesota Maine Montana Missouri New Jersey Energy Sector 89.8 19.26 21.4 115.3 109.3 Industrial Processes 0.8 0.27 3.7 6.9 3.7 Waste Management 5.5 0.14 1.0 5.2 11.7 Agriculture 8.7 0.54 3.7 11.7 0.2 Total 104.9 20.21 29.7 139.1 124.9 1990 Resident Population 1 4,375,000 1,228,000 799,000 5,117,000 7,730,000 Lbs. C02 Equiv./Capita 24.0 18.5 37.2 27.2 16.2 1990 GSP 71 100 23 13 104 208 Lbs. C02 Equiv./$GSP 2.1 1.8 4.6 2.7 1.2 Scuroe Oregon Vermont Washington Wisconsin Energy Sector 12.2 5.7 85.2 104.9 Industrial Processes 0.5 - 44.6 0.0 Waste Management 0.6 0.1 4.8 4.6 Agriculture 0.8 0.3 2.5 9.9 Total 13.9 6.2 137.0 119.4 1990 Resident Population 2,842,000 563,000 4,867,000 4,892,000 Lbs. C02 Equiv./Capita 4.9 11.0 28.2 24.4 1990 GSP ' 55 11 109 101 Lbs. C02 Equiv./$GSP 0.5 1.1 2.5 2.4 Sources: 'USEPA, 1997a.;' Noller, 1995, 21; ° Spencer. 1998, 11; °USEPA, 1997D; ° State of Montana. 1997, 88; ° Johnson entl AuGOIt, 1995, 11; ~ State of Oregon, 1995, Table 18; ° State of Vemwnt, 1994, 7; ° Kerstetter, 1994, x; 10 U.S. Dept. of Commerce. 1994, TeDle 28, p. 27; " U.S. Dept of Commerce, 1994, Table 858, p. 449. GbDal warming poten9al displayetl on this table does not Inducts biomau emissions antl tha eflec4s of lantl use change or carbon sinks. Gross Slate Prcducl (GSP) is reported in billions of 1990 tlollars Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-13 f In each of these states, the energy sector was the primary source of greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for over 80% of emissions in 9 of the 12 states, including Hawaii. Of the exceptions, Kentucky and Montana had lazge proportional shares of emissions from production processes. Kentucky's production process emissions came primarily from CFC refrigerant production and methane emitted during coal mining (Spencer, 1996, 11, 95). Montana's major non-energy emissions were from aluminum production and domesticated animals (State of Montana, 1997, 67). Washington state's large forest products and aluminum industries also produced significant emissions (Kerstetter, 1994, 9). Among this group of states, Hawaii produced the third lowest quantity of COZ equivalent emissions per capita and the fourth lowest per dollaz of GSP. Oregon and Vermont produced less emissions per capita. Their electricity sectors included significant amounts of power produced by hydroelectric and nuclear plants. Both states included emissions from power production in other states which served their residents. In contrast, Hawaii's electricity sector dominated its production of greenhouse gases and about 90% of Hawaii's electricity was produced by oil-fired generators in 1990. Hawaii, of course, has no interconnections with other states or between its own islands. Oregon and Vermont also emitted fewer pounds of CO2 equivalent greenhouse gas emissions per dollar of GSP in 1990 due to the extensive use of hydroelectric and nucleaz power in their electricity sectors. New Jersey produced about the same amount of emissions per dollaz of GSP as Hawaii, but most of its electricity needs were met by nuclear power plants (USDOE, 1992, 224). From this comparison, we can see that Hawaii's greenhouse gas emissions aze relatively low compazed to other states. Although fossil fuel use dominated Hawaii's energy sector, Hawaii's system was relatively efficient. In 1990, Hawaii's total per capita energy use ranked 41" in the nation and was 83 percent of the national average (11). This was aided by the lack of major space heating Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-74 requirements. High energy costs also likely contributed to increased efficiency. Hawaii's energy prices in 1990 averaged $9.76 per million Btu, ranking 11'" in the nation. This amounted to $1,966 per capita, ranking 22"' in the nation (USDOE, 19926, 10-11). Additional rankings were as depicted on Table 2-8. Table 2.8 Hawaii Energy Cost National Rankings, 1990 Category Dollars par Million Btu Ranking Average Energy Prices 9.76 11 Petroleum 6.42 50 Gasoline 11.71 1 Synthetic Nature) Gas' 12.25 1 Coal 1.82 10 Electricity 26.53 7 ' SNG price as tampered fo MeinlarM US natural gas prices Source: USDOE, iBB2D, 70.18 While petroleum prices were relatively low, at the consumer level, petroleum refined as gasoline and synthetic natural gas were the most expensive in the nation. Oil was used to produce about 90% of Hawaii's electricity at a cost seventh in the nation. While coal was relatively inexpensive, in 1990 it was only used in relatively small amounts by two sugaz plantations and a cement kiln. These costs help explain the structure of Hawaii's energy use and resulting energy sector greenhouse gas emissions. They are also factors which must be considered in future mitigation measures. The high costs make energy efficiency measures more valuable. The low cost of fossil fuels, however, makes substitution for those fuels less attractive. 2.7 Recommendations for Improvement of Future Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventories The major recommendation is for improvement of the quality of data. Data for the energy sector is generally good. Recent Department of Health Air Emissions Report forms do not collect fuel quantities used by the reporting sources as the Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-15 v 1990 forms previously required. Generally, however, energy use by stationary source estimates can be based instead on DBEDT data, but with less detail. Greater resolution of the data on overseas aviation and marine fuel use could lead to sepazate identification of the amounts of fuel used for international and domestic overseas flights. It could be azgued that domestic overseas fuel use should be included as part of Hawaii's inventory. In addition, more information on military fuel use would be useful, including imports by military logistical agencies in addition to currently available data on sales by Hawaii refiners and suppliers to the military. Detailed end use data is also needed. This study relied on the refiners for data on their production process emissions. Given the requirements of environmental laws, fugitive emissions and other processing emissions appear to be tightly controlled. A bit more detail, particulazly on flaring, and greater explanation of the sources could help identify additional measures to reduce the relatively small emissions from these sources. Data on municipal solid waste management has greatly improved with post-1993 reporting requirements. Wastewater treatment is being upgraded in Hawaii and progress should be monitored, especially any methane control measures. Emissions from agriculture aze difficult to quantify. While emissions from domesticated animals can be calculated based on available animal population data, there is a lack of detailed data on manure management, and fertilizer use. A more detailed analysis of Hawaii land use is needed to calculate the effects of Hawaii's forests, watersheds, and agricultural azeas as greenhouse gas sinks. As noted above, this report will serve as a baseline in an effort to identify greenhouse gas reduction measures in the second phase of this project. Good data and continuing analysis of greenhouse gas emissions will be an important component of any successful effort to reduce those emissions. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2-16 CHAPTER 3 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM ENERGY USE 3.1 Overview Hawaii met most of its needs for energy and process heat in 1990 with the fossil fuels oil and coal. Biomass fuels, including sugar cane bagasse, macadamia nut shells, municipal solid waste, and wood chips, and renewable energy sources, including geothermal, hydroelectricity, wind, and solar, were also used. The fossil and biomass fuels resulted in the emission of the greenhouse gases cazbon dioxide (COz), methane (CH,), and nitrous oxide (N,O), and tropospheric precursor gases nitrogen oxides (NO„), carbon monoxide (CO), and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC). Tlris section reports the total emissions of these gases from the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass fuels in Hawaii's energy sector in 1990. The calculation of these emssions from stationary energy sources is explained in Chapter 4 and the calculation of emissions from mobile sources is reported in Chapter 5. 3.2 Hawaii's Energy System 3.2.1 Energy Use In Hawaii Figure 3.1 shows how Hawaii meets its needs for energy. At the top of the figure, energy is depicted entering the Hawaii energy system either through imports of crude oil, refined oil products, coal, and LPG, or through local production of biomass (bagasse, macadamia nut shells, municipal solid waste, and wood chips), wind, geothermal, solar, and hydropower. Hawaii has no indigenous supplies of fossil fuels. Imported crude oil is refined on Oahu into oil products, which aze either used to produce electricity, used locally, exported, or used as bunker fuel for aircraft and ships departing the islands for overseas destinations. Some refined products, particulazly high-sulfur fuel oil, aze exported. Principal fuels provided for Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-1 Y overseas-bound aircraft and ships aze jet fuel, residual fuel oil, and distillate fuel oil. Hawaii's refineries also produce feedstocks that are transformed into synthetic natural gas (SNG) for use as utility gas. Imported coal and most of the locally produced forms of energy biomass, geothermal (not yet operational in 1990), hydroelectricity, and wind are used to generate electricity. Coal and biomass also provide process heat in the industrial sector. All electricity produced is obviously used locally, as transmission links with other states do not exist. In fact, each island's electrical system operates independently of the other islands. Solaz energy is either directly converted into hot water by solar water heaters or into electricity by photovoltaic cells. Figure 3.1 Hawaii's Energy System IMPORTS HAWAII SOURCES Refined LPG Crude Coal Biomass Hydro Products OII GsofMnnal Wind Solar Hawaii Refining - - - - Production Ebetriesy Gensratbn Heatlenp Ezportd Bunkers Transportation Residential, Commercial, Industrial End-Uses Saetor End-Uses LPG is used in all end-use sectors. LPG is both imported and manufactured locally as one of the outputs of Hawaii's refineries. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-2 3.2.2 Energy Use by Fuel Table 3.1 is a summary of Hawaii's energy sources and their use in 1990. The table lists each of Hawaii's energy sources in the first column. The amounts of energy imported into Hawaii, refined in Hawaii, or produced in Hawaii aze listed in millions of British thermal units (Btu) in the second column. The third column provides the amounts sold as bunker fuel, exported, or sold to the azmed forces. The emissions from these fuels will not be included in the inventory of Hawaii emissions for the reasons described below. The greenhouse gas emissions from this fuel use were not included in the Hawaii emission inventory. The fourth column summarizes the amounts of fuel or energy used in Hawaii that will be the focus of this inventory. Table 3.1 Energy Uss In Hawali by Fwl, 1990 Fwl or Energy Imporbd Into, Fwl for Oversees Fuel or Energy Souros Rsflnsd In, or Bunkea, Exports, Used In Hawall Produced In Hawall or Sold to Military (Mllllon Btu) (Mllllon BW) (Million Btu) Aviation Gasoline 226,272 7,804 218,467 Bagasse 17,796,000 17,796,000 Coel 527,116 527,116 Distillate Fuel Oil 32,664,859 14,987,833 17.697,026 Hydroek+ctric 1,070,000 1,070,000 Jet Fuel 97,191,146 74,101,797 23.089,351 Landfill Methane 128,511 128,511 LPG 3,511,495 3,51 i,495 Motor Gasoline 46,961,577 340,053 46,621,524 Macadamia Nut Shells 84,750 84,750 Municipal Solid Weste 4,929,840 4,929,840 Residual Fuel Oil 96,146,031 13,737,535 82,408,496 Solar Water Heating 2,340,000 2,340,000 Synthetic Natural Gas 3,480,600 3,480,600 Wood Chips 284,483 284,483 Wind 290,000 290,000 Total 307,632,682 103,155,022 204,477,659 Percent 100°h 34% 66% An estimated 307,632,682 million Btu of energy was imported, refined, or produced in Hawaii in 1990. Of that amount, 34%, or 103,155,022 Btu was not used in Hawaii. It was sold as fuel for aircraft and ships involved in overseas operations, sold to the military, or exported as cazgo. However, the emissions Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-3 from this fuel were calculated and reported sepazately to provide a complete record. Aviation fuel in this report includes jet fuel used for overseas flights, both internationally and to the mainland United States. Distillate and residual bunker fuel oils were primarily sold to vessels in international trade or fishing vessels from foreign nations. High sulfur residual fuel oil was also exported. The fuel purchased by the armed forces in Hawaii was also omitted from this accounting. In addition to being home to many military bases, Hawaii is a key logistics center. Unknown amounts of the fuel purchased from Hawaii refiners may be used by transient military aircraft and naval vessels or otherwise used outside of Hawaii. Wide fluctuations in military purchases from Hawaii noted in available data suggest that additional fuel is brought into Hawaii by military logistics agencies. Information on military fuel imports, local use, transient aircraft and ship use, and exports was not available from United States Pacific Command officials. However, as this report will serve as the basis for developing mitigation measures, it should also be noted that military fuel use is not subject to state influence or direction. Fuel use by fixed military boilers and generators is included in the commercial sector of this report.. It should also be noted that the Department of Defense is the lazgest electricity customer in the state, so significant emissions from the electricity sector result from generation of electricity for military use. Table 3.2, on the next page, lists energy use in Hawaii by fuel. A total of 204,447,659 Btu were used. Fossil fuels provided 87% of Hawaii's in-state energy needs. Renewable energy, predominantly bagasse, met 13% of Hawaii's energy needs in 1990. Bagasse, macadamia nut shells, and wood chips used to produce energy and process heat are COZ neutral. Since these fuels aze from crops, they absorb similaz amounts of CO2 in the growing cycle compazed to the amounts emitted when burned. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3~ a Table 3.2 Energy Use in Hawall by Fuel or Ewrgy Source, 1990 Fwl or Source Million Btu PerwM Fossil Fwb Aviatbn Gasoline 43,278 218,487 Coal 24,517 527,116 Dis8lkte Fuel Oil 2,994,980 17,897,026 Jat Fuel 8,875,219 46,821,524 LPG 4,072,198 23,089,351 Motor Gasoline 875,466 3,511,495 Residual Fuel Oil 13,107,762 82,408,496 Synthetic Nature) Gas 3,480,800 Subtotal 177,554,075 Renewable Ewrgy Bagasse 1,072,015 17,798,000 HydroelecMC 1,070,000 Landfill Methane 128,511 Macadamia Nut Shells 7,500 84,750 Municipal Solid Waste 492,984 4,929,840 Soler Water HeaSng 2,340,000 Wind 290,000 Wood Chips 18,500 284,483 Subtotal 26,923,584 Total 204,477,658 Figure 3.2 Hawaii Energy Use by Fue1,1990 Otlxr Bagasse 6X gX ietil Disl~lete ~ti . • sX Jet Fuel 11X Residual 40X ry II „ ~l ~ry~~ Ie: k~ni li I i . i ii4: ,~N'n..~ i I' i i,, iPllllil~i I~ i i ~~~lill: I Ii ~ i;,.iii ~i Gasoline M51N 23'/. rti Figure 3.2, above, depicts the relative contribution of each energy source to the Hawaii energy system. Residual fuel oil, primarily used for electrical generation and some process heat, represented 40% of energy use. Gasoline, at 23%, was in Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-5 second place. Most gasoline was used in highway vehicles. Jet fuel used for interisland flights accounted for 11 % of energy use. Bagasse, at 9%, was used by the sugaz industry to produce process heat and electricity for its own use and to produce surplus electricity sold to Hawaii's utilities. Distillate fuel oil, including diesel, also at 9% was used for electricity generation, highway and off-highway vehicles, marine vessels, and for process heat. Burning of municipal solid waste produced about 2% of Hawaii's energy. Other fuels, including aviation gasoline, coal, LPG, synthetic natural gas, hydroelectric, landfill methane, macadamia nut shells, solar water heating, wood chips, and wind together provided a total of 6% of Hawaii's energy. 3.3 Hawaii Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Use 3.3.1 Summary of Carbon Dioxide Emissions Hawaii's greenhouse gas emissions were calculated using the estimates of fuel and energy use presented above. Table 3.3, on the next page, summarizes energy use and carbon dioxide emissions in 1990 by sector and fuel use. COz emissions totaled 15,714,761 tons. However, COZ emissions from renewable resources, including bagasse, macadamia nut shells, and wood chips, were offset by COZ used in the growing cycle of these fuels. Thus, the quantity of CO2 emissions from the energy sector to be included in the overall 1990 inventory of greenhouse gases was 14,751,549 tons, which excluded COZ from these sources. While burning landfill methane and municipal solid waste also produced COZ and other greenhouse gas emissions, the global warming potential of these emissions was less than if the landfill methane had been allowed to escape into the atmosphere and if the MSW had been landfilled and allowed to produce unrecovered methane. Further, solaz, hydroelectric, and wind energy use produced no greenhouse gas emissions. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-6 Tabls 3.3 Faun and Blamass Fual Coroumptlon and CO= EmMloro In Hawai1,1990 SeetoMFwl pwntHy Million BW Toro COt Nat Tons COr % Nst CO= ReaidaMlal Sector 1.9% 0.6X LPG (Bbl) 219,711 881,261 fi0,461 60,461 64% SNG 592,400 34,299 34,299 36% Solar 2,340,000 Noro None None Subtotal 3,813,881 94,780 94,780 100% Commercial Sector 22X 1.9% Dis811ate (BbQ 10,512 81,233 4,890 4,890 2% LPG (Bbl) 381,524 1,530,293 104,989 104,989 38% Residual (Bbl) 3,080 19,384 1,666 1,668 1% SNG WA 2,888,200 187,222 167,222 60% Suttotal 4,489,09D 278,787 278,787 100% Industrial Sector 14.6% 6.b% Bagasse (Pons) 1,072,015 17,798,000 822,265 Not InGuded Not InGuded Coal (Tons) 24,517 527,116 53,576 53,576 6.6% Dis611ate (Bbl) 167,874 977,886 78,092 78,092 10°h Diesel (OHJiwy) (Bbl) 364,552 2,374,724 169,584 169,584 21°k Gasoline (Ofl-Hwy) (Bbl) 34,171 179,500 13.944 73,944 2°k Hydroebctric 857,232 Nona None None LPG (Bbl) 254,349 1,020,194 69,992 69,992 9% LPG (Oft-Hwy) (Bbl) 25 100 7 7 0.001 °k Mae Nuts (Tons) 7,500 84,750 12,798 Not InGuded Not InGuded Residual (ebq 847,449 5,327,911 431,411 431,411 53% Wind 290,000 None None None Wood Chips (Tons) 16,500 284,483 28,151 Not InGutled Not InGuded Subtotal 29,719,876 7,779,818 816,606 100% Electriefty Sector 46.0X 61.BY. Distillate (Bbl) 1,667,318 9,712,188 775.615 775,615 10°h Hydroebetric 212,788 None None None Landfill Methane 128,511 7,441 7,441 0.1% MSW (tons) 492,984 4,929,840 238,008 238,008 3% Residual (Bbl) 12,250,444 77,018,539 8,825,982 6,625,982 87% Subtotal 92,001,844 7,647,048 7,647,046 100°h Transportation Sector 38.4% 40.1% Avgas (Bbl) 43,278 218,467 16,485 16,495 0.3% Diesel (Bbl) 784,724 4,571,017 554,687 554.687 9% Gasoline (Bbl) 8,841,048 46,442,024 3,511,353 3,511,353 59°k Jet Fuel (Bbl) 4,072,196 23,089,351 1,822,982 1,822,962 31% LPG (Bbi) 19,857 79,647 5,464 5,464 0.09°k Residual (Bbl) 6,789 42,662 3,409 3,409 0.06% Subtotal 74,443,188 5,914,370 5,914,370 100°k Total 204,477,659 15,714,761 14,751,549 100% (State of Hawaii, 1997) 3.3.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Fuel Table 3.41ists net COz emissions by fuel and Figure 3.3 depicts the percentages of each. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-7 TabN 3.4 COQ Emiuloru In Hawall by Fw1,1990 Fwl CwrMity Mllllon Btu Net Tons CO= Peroent COQ Fossil Fuels Avpas(Bbl) 43,278 218,467 16,495 0.1% Coal (Tons) 24,517 527,116 53,576 0.38% Dietilkte (Bbq 2,994,980 17,897,026 1,582,868 11% Gasoline (Bbl) 8,875,219 48,621,524 3,525,297 24% Jet Fuel (BBl) 4,072,198 23,089,351 1,822,962 12% LPG (Bbl) 875,466 3,511,495 240,912 2% Residual (Bbl) 13,107,762 82,408,496 7,062,467 48% SNG 3,480,600 201,522 1% Subtotal 177,554,075 14,506,100 RenewabN Energy Bagasse (tone) 1,072,015 17,798,000 Not InGuded Not InGuded HydroebcMc 1,070,000 None None Landfill Methane 128,571 7,441 0.05°~ Mac Nu[s (Tons) 7,500 84,750 Not InGuded Not InGuded MSW (Tons) 492,984 4,929,840 238,008 2% Solar 2,340,000 None None Wind 290,000 None None Wood Chips (Tons) 18,500 284,483 Not Indudetl Not InGuded Subtotal 28,923,584 245,449 Total 204,477,859 14,751,549 100.0% (State of Hawaii, 7997) Figure 3.3 Hawaii CO2 Emiuions by Fue1,1990 Disttlele 11% Other I ~/r, 5% I~I r' 'Ij °I ResMuel II , i ' 47% i I I Oesdine ~ ,III za% (lli l ii i l1 li ~i il, ~II il' Jet Fuel 12% In Table 3.4 and Figure 3.3, residual fuel oil cleazly dominated as the main source of net C02 emissions at 47% compazed to its 40% shaze of overall energy use Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-8 (See Table 3.2). Gasoline followed at 25% with a 23% share of overall energy use. Interisland jet fuel use produced 13% of C02 emissions. Distillate fuel use produced 11 % of net energy sector CO, emissions. All other fuels produced about 5% of 1990 energy sector net COz emissions. As noted above, C02 emissions from bagasse, macadamia nut shells, and wood chips used to produce energy were not included as their COZ emissions are offset during the growing cycle. Other greenhouse gas emissions produced by the use of these fuels will be included in the inventory as they are not used in the growing cycle. 3.3.3 Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Energy Use Secfor Greenhouse and precursor gas emissions were calculated by sector to provide a basis for future evaluation of the relative importance of each sector and the fuel types used in each sector. This detail will help in the development of mitigation measures in Phase II of this project. Sector definitions may be found in Section 1.5 of this report. Figure 3.4 depicts the distribution of Hawaii net energy use COZ emissions by economic sector. Figure 3.4 Pereent of Hawaii Net Energy Use COZ Emissions by Sector, 1990 Indualdal Residential 2ltk 0.7k i ~I~ Trampartati°n 41.6k ~ ~ Ebctdcity ' ~ 53.8k I~ I~~` I ~ . I ~I iii Commeraal 2.ltY. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-9 a Over half of net C02 emissions from energy uses (7,647,046 tons or 53.8%) came from the electricity sector, followed by 41.6% (5,914,370 tons) from the transportation sector. The industrial and commercial sectors each contributed about 2% (284,988 tons and 278,767 tons respectively) of Hawaii's net C02 emissions from energy. The residential sector produced only 0.7% (94,760 tons). 3.4 Non-Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Use 3.4.1 Summary of Non-Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Fuel This section presents the non-COz greenhouse and precursor gas emissions from energy use in Hawaii. As depicted on Table 3.5 and 3.7, 18,604 tons of CH, were emitted due to energy use Hawaii in 1990. All of the CH, emissions were produced by fossil fuel combustion. N20 emissions totaled 922 tons. NOx emissions were produced by all fuels and totaled 61,844 tons. CO emissions were 116,247 tons. Finally, NMVOC emissions were 21,589 tons, emitted by all fuels except LPG, SNG, macadamia nuts, and municipal solid waste. Commercial sector and transportation energy uses of residual fuel oil did not emit NMVOCs and bagasse. Coal emissions were extremely small. Table 3.5 Hawaii Non-C02 Emissions by Fuel, 1990 (Tons) Fuel CH, N=0 NO. CO NMVOC Aviation Gas 0.5 0.2 70 29 4 Bagasse N/A N/A 1,326 5 0.1 Coal 1 N/A 345 19 0.4 Distillate 68 352 18,894 4,825 3,049 Jet Fuel 17,746 N/A 7,389 3,117 462 Landfill Methane 1 N/A 25 4 N/A LPG 6 4 142 113 27 Mac Nuts N!A N!A 5 N/A N/A Motor Gas 704 557 10,896 106,394 17,746 MSW N/A N/A 784 104 N/A Residual 75 1 21,950 1,393 286 SNG 4 7.2 33 35 N/A Wood Chips N/A N/A 6 210 14 Total 18,604 922 61,844 116,247 21,589 Table 3.6 shows the percentage contribution of each type of fuel to the total of each of the non-COZ greenhouse gas emissions. Jet fuel combustion on interisland flights produced 95% of energy use CHa emissions; gasoline produced 60% of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-10 x Nz0 emissions and distillate fuels produced 38%. Residual fuel oil at 36%, produced most of the NOx emissions, followed by distillate fuel oil (31 and gasoline (18%). Gasoline use produced 92% of the carbon monoxide and 82% of the NMVOCs. Table 3.8 Percent Hawall Non-CO= Emisaiona by Fwl, 1990 Fwl CFi~ N~0 NO° CO NMVOC Aviation Ges 0.003% 0.02% 0.1% 0.02% 0.02% Bagasse 2% 0.004% 0.0004% Coal 0.0054% 0.6% 0.02% 0.002% Distillate 0.4% 38% 3[% 4% 14% Jet Fwl 95% 12% 3% 2% LPG 0.03% 0.4% 0.2% 0.10°h 0.1% Mac Nuts 0.01% Motor Gas 4% 60% 18% 92°~ 82% MSW 1.2% 0.09% Residual 0.4% 0.1% 35% 1% 1% SNG 0.02% 0.8% 0.05% 0.03% Wood Chips 0.01% 0.2% 0.06% Total 700% 100% 100% 100% 100% 3.4.2 Non-Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector Table 3.7 summarizes non-COZ greenhouse and precursor gas emissions by _ energy sector and fuel. It also reports the percentage contribution to the total of each type of emissions in each energy sector. Hawaii Geenhouse Gas Inventory 3-71 Table 3.7 Non-COQ Emfaalons from Energy Use in Hawaii, 1890 (Tons) Sector/Fuel CH, N=0 NO, CO NMVOC Residential Sector 0.01°h 0°h 0.1°h 0.01°h 0°h LPG 1 N/A 43 9 WA SNG 1 N/A 29 6 N/A Subtotal 2 N/A 72 15 N/A Commercial Sector 0.03% 1.4% 0.02°h 0.04% 0.002°h Distillate 0.06 1 10 3 0.4 LPG 2 4 2 15 N/A Residual 0.03 1 0.03 0.4 N!A SNG 4 7 3.6 29 N/A Subtotal 6 13 15 47 0.4 Industrial Sector 0.1°h 42% 7°h 2°h 12°h Bagasse NIA N/A 1,328 5 0.1 Coal 1 N/A 345 19 0.4 Distillate 2 N/A 407 150 39 Diesel (Off-Hwy) 7 332 1,118 1,209 2,223 Gasoline (Off-Hwy) 1 59 3 186 337 LPG 1 N/A 71 18 N/A LPG (Off-Hwy) 0.0002 0.03 0.001 0.1 0.2 Mac Nuts N/A N/A 5 N/A N/A Residual 16 N/A 1,293 86 21 Wood Chips N/A N/A 6 210 14 Subtotal 27 391 4,570 1,883 2,635 ElecMcity Sector 1°h 1°/. 49% 3°h 3°h Distillate 50 13 8,914 1,935 361 Landfill Methane 1 N/A 25 4 N/A MSW N/A N/A 764 104 N/A Residual 58 N/A 20,515 1,304 265 Subtotal 109 13 30,218 3,347 626 Trenaportation Sector 99% 55°h 44% 95°h 85% Aviation Gasoline 0.5 0.2 70 29 4 Diesel 9 7 8,448 1,528 425 Gasoline 703 498 10,893 106,208 17,409 Jet Fuel 17,746 N/A 7,389 3,117 462 LPG 2 0.03 26 70 27 Residual N/A 0.04 142 2 N/A Subtotal 18,460 505 26,968 110,954 18,327 Total 18,604 922 61,644 116,247 21,589 As depicted on Figure 3.5, on the following page, the transportation sector dominated the output of all five of these emissions in 1990. The industrial sector produced significant shazes of NZO and NMVOCs. The electricity sector was responsible for significant NOz emissions. The residential and commercial sectors produced only small portions of emissions of non-C02 greenhouse and precursor gases or none at all. The next section discusses how the greenhouse gas emissions reported above were calculated. Hawali Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-12 Figure 3.5 Hawaii Non-COy Emissions by Sector, 1990 100% 90% 80°b 70% ¦Transportatbn 60% O Industrial 50% ¦COmmercial i' ii ~ mFJectridty i 40% thliili'' - ©Residentiel ~~I~ 30% i:.~ 'i a ~ (I~I iii i ~Ii ~u 10% ~~y;i I fiilili~ G iX~p 0% CH4 N20 NOx CO NMVOC 3.5 General Methodology for Estimating Emissions 3.5.1 Estimating Carbon Dioxide Emissions The methodology used to estimate COZ emissions was outlined in the EPA State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b). This methodology is described in the following simplified form based on Wisconsin Greenhouse Gas Emissions; Estimates for 1990 (State of Wisconsin, 1993, 24). The formula for calculating C02 emissions can be expressed as: CO= Emissions (tons) _ (Qr *EFr )/200016s./ton *OxFac*44C0=/12C (Equation 3.1) Where: Qr =quantity of fuel type f in millions of Btu EFr =emission factor for fuel f (lbs./million Btu) OxFac =oxidation factor COZ emissions were estimated using Equation 3.1 by the following three-step process. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-13 Step 1. Determine the use of fossil fuel and biomass fuel by type (Q~) by fossil fuel type. Most petroleum fuel use data used in this report were obtained from energy statistics compiled by the DBEDT Energy, Resources, and Technology Division from fuel supplier and distributor reports. The reports, required by Chapter 486E, Hawaii Revised Statutes, were submitted to DBEDT by each person or firm who refined, manufactured, produced, sold, exchanged, or utilized fuel in manufacture of products or production of power. Imports and exports of fuel were also reported. Some bonded fuel used by foreign airlines may not have been reported as it was technically not imported or exported. Data on fossil fuel and biomass use in the sugar industry were provided by the Hawaii Agricultural Reseazch Center (which was called the Hawaii Sugaz Planters' Association in 1990) unpublished data (HSPA, 1991). Additional data on coal use were provided by Hawaiian Cement (Cieslik, 1994), the only coal user outside the sugaz industry in 1990. Nathan Yuen (Yuen, 1996) at the Hawaii Resource Recovery Venture provided data on municipal solid waste used for power generation. Utility fuel use data was obtained from Air Emissions Reports filed by the utilities with the State of Hawaii Department of Health's Clean Air Branch (State of Hawaii, 1991a) and from the Hawaiian Electric Company's Environmental Department. Air Emissions Reports to the Hawaii Clean Air Branch from commercial and industrial stationary source permit holders provided detailed information on fuel use in these sources and on some non-COZ greenhouse and precursor gas emissions. These provided the basis for the stationary source inventories in these two sectors. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-14 a Highway use data was provided by the State of Hawaii Department of Transporta- tion Planning Branch (State of Hawaii, 1996a) and data on statewide vehicle registrations came from the City and County of Honolulu Data Services Division (C&C, 1996). This information served as a basis for highway vehicle fuel use estimation and greenhouse gas emission calculation as described Chapter 5. One category of petroleum product omitted from this report was asphalt and road oil. These products sequester most of the cazbon contained within them and do not affect the greenhouse gas inventory. For the record, Hawaii refineries produced 246,142 bazrels of asphalt and road oil in 1990 (State of Hawaii, 1997). It should be noted that the nature of available data resulted in inconsistencies between some sources. In other cases, procedures recommended in the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b) were used to develop estimates. This report used the best data and information available and sought to logically resolve inconsistencies. Step 2. Multiply use by type (Q~) by the average carbon emission coefficient of the fuel, EF,. Divide by 2000 to get tons of total carbon emitted per fuel. The carbon emission coefficients for each fuel aze from Chapter 1 of the EPA State Workbook (Table 1-3, 1-11). The carbon emission coefficients aze provided in conjunction with the discussion of emissions calculations in Chapters 4 and 5. This report departs slightly from the State Workbook (1-9) methodology by not subtracting international bunker fuels, exports, and, in the case of Hawaii, fuel sold to the armed forces prior to the next step. These amounts were deducted from fuel use prior to Step 1. Emissions from these sources were estimated and reported sepazately. In addition, since Hawaii is not involved in interstate electricity sales, there were no amounts to report under that category. Step 3. Multiply by the oxidation factor (OxFac) to calculate total tons of carbon oxidized. Multiply this by 44 tons C02/12 tons C to get tons of CO, emitted. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-15 The oxidation factor is the fraction of the cazbon in the fuel which is oxidized during consumption to form COZ. Oxidation factors were provided in Chapter 1 of the State Workbook (1-13). For biomass (bagasse and MSW) the oxidation factor is 0.90. For synthetic natural gas, it is 0.995. For all other fuels it is 0.99. 3.5.2 Estimating Non-COz Emissions Calculation of methane (CH,), nitrous oxide (Nz0), nitrogen oxides (NO,), cazbon monoxide (CO), and nonmethane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) emissions can be extremely difficult. Emissions of these gases depend upon fuel, combustion process, and pollution controls. They can vary further with size and vintage of combustion technology. Moreover, the amount of non-COQ gases from energy use is not considered to be major contributors to climate change (D 14-1). Chapter D-14 of the State Workbook provides available emissions factors for a variety of different combustion technologies for each sector. These factors were employed where applicable. The calculations aze explained in more detail in Chapter 4 for stationary sources and in Chapter 5 for mobile sources. In the case of stationary sources, NOx, CO, and NMVOC emissions were based upon the Air Emissions Reports filed by commercial and industrial stationary source permit holders and by the electric utilities with the Hawaii Department of Health (State of Hawaii, 1991a). Equation 3.2 is the general formula used to calculate non-COZ greenhouse and precursor gas emissions: Emissions (tons) _ (Q~ *EF~)/2000 lbs./ton (Equation 3.2) Where Q~ =quantity of fuel type f in million Btu; EFL =emission factor for fuel f in combustion process j (lbs./million Btu); and the product of Qf *EF~ is divided by 20001bs./ton to yield the result in tons. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 3-16 CHAPTER 4 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM STATIONARY ENERGY SOURCE FOSSIL AND BIOMASS FUEL COMBUSTION 4.1 Overview Chapter 4 reports the greenhouse gas emissions produced by combustion of fossil and biomass fuels in stationary energy sources in Hawaii in 1990. Greenhouse gas emissions were calculated by the general methodology described in Chapter 3. This chapter begins with a summary of Hawaii stationary source greenhouse gas emissions. The sections following the summary describe the calculation of greenhouse gas emissions from stationary energy sources in the residential, commercial, industrial, and electricity sectors. 4.2 Summary of Emissions from Stationary Energy Sources A total of 8,653,644 tons of C02 were emitted by stationary energy sources. Figure 4.1 depicts the percentages of stationary source COZ emissions produced in each sector. In the residential sector, the various uses of LPG and SNG produced Figure 4.7 Percent of COp Emlasione by Stationary Source Seetor in Hawaii, 1880 Comrtbrciel 3296 hduslrMl 7.3% ResMerRiel 1.1% Elearicny 88.4% Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-1 R only 1.1 % of COZ emissions -the smallest shaze. Distillate fuel oil, LPG, residual fuel oil, and SNG use in the commercial sector represented 3.2% of total stationary source C02 emissions. Industrial sector emissions were 7.3% of the total and were created by combustion of the widest variety of fuels bagasse, coal, distillate fuel oil, LPG, macadamia nut shells (Mac Nuts on Table 4.1), residual fuel oil, and wood chips. Bagasse, macadamia nut shells, and wood chips aze COZ neutral since equivalent amounts of COZ are used in growing these fuels. The electricity sector, using distillate and residual fuel oils, landfill methane, and MSW to generate electricity, dominated COz emissions from stationary sources at 88.4 % of the total. Table 4.1 summazizes stationary source COZ emissions by sector and by type of fuel. Table 4.1 Hawaii Stationary Source CO, Emissions by Sector and Fuel, 1990 Sector/Fuel puanUty Million Btu Tons C02 Percent COZ Residential Sector 1.1•k LPG (Bbl) 219,711 881,281 60,461 64% SNG (Btu) 592,400 34,299 36% Subtotal 1,473,661 94,760 100% ommercial actor 3.2 Distillate (Bbl) 10,512 61,233 4,1190 2% LPG (Bbl) 381,524 1,530,293 104,989 38% Residual (Bbl) 3,080 19,364 1,866 1% SNG (Btu) 2,888,200 167,222 60% Subtotal 4,499,090 278,767 100% Industria actor .3°k Bagasse (Tons) 1,072,015 17,796,000 not inGuded not included Coal (Tons) 24,517 527,116 53,576 8.5% Distillate (Bbl) 167,874 977,866 78,092 12% LPG (Bbl) 254,349 1,020,194 69,992 11% Mac Nuts (Tons) 7,500 84,750 not inGuded not inGuded Residual (Bbl) 847,449 5,327,911 431,411 88% Wood Chips (Tons) 16,500 284,483 not inGuded not included Subtotal 26,018,320 833,071 100% lectricity Sector 88.4 ° Distillate (Bbl) 1,667,318 9,712,186 775,615 10% Landfill Methane (Btu) 128,511 7,441 0.1% MSW (Tons) 492,984 4,929,840 238,008 3% Residual (Bbl) 12,250,444 77,018,539 6,625,982 87% Subtotal 91,789,076 7,647,048 100% actors ota (State of Hawaii, 1997) The dominance of the electricity sector is further illustrated when COZ emissions by fuel aze examined. Table 4.2, on the following page, shows the amounts of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-2 s each type of fuel combusted by the stationary sources and the tons of COZ emissions produced. Residual fuel oil produced 81.6% of total C02 emissions most of the residual fuel oil was used to produce electricity. Distillate fuel oil was in second place at 9.9%. Table 4.2 Stationary Source COZ Emissions by Fuel Fuel MIIIion Btu Percent Fuel Tons CO= Percent CO= agasse .4 not m u not n ude Coal 527,118 0.4% 53,578 0.8°k Distillate 10,751,285 8.7% 858,597 9.9% Landfill Methane 128,511 0.1% 7,441 0.1% LPG 3,431,748 2.8% 235,442 2.7% Macadamia Nuts 84,750 0.1% not induded not induded Mun. Solid WaBfe 4,929,840 4.0% 238,008 2.8% Re8idUel 82,385,814 88.5% 7,059,059 81.8% SNG 3,480,600 2.8% 201,521 2.3°k Wood Chips 284,483 0.2°k not induded not induded Total 123,780,147 100.0% 8,853,644 100% tsrte a wwau, ~swl Figure 4.2 Percent of COy Emissions from Stationary Sources by Fuel in Hawaii, 1990 LPO A95YV Distllete SNG 2.7% 2.8% 9.9% Other 2.3% 111\1 0.7% i, \~1'i~\tV Realduel 81.6% Relative percentages of COZ emissions from stationary sources fuel use aze shown in Figure 4.2. The relatively small amounts of C02 emissions from coal and landfill methane are together about 0.7% of the total from stationary sources and Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-3 s are presented as "Other" in the figure. Bagasse, macadamia nut shells, and wood chips are all renewable fuels and are not included in this Figure. Table 4.3 summarizes the emissions of the non-COz greenhouse and precursor gases CH„ N20, NO„ CO, and NMVOC from stationary energy sources by sector and fuel. Table 4.3 Stationary Source Non-COz Emissions by Sector and Fuel, 1990 (tons) SectorlFuel CH, Nz0 NO„ CO NMVOC es danba actor LPG 0.9 N/A 43 9 N/A SNG 0.6 N/A 29 6 N/A Subtotal 1.5 N/A 72 15 N/A ommercia actor Distillate 0.1 1 10 3 0.4 LPG 2 4 2 15 N/A Residual 0.03 1 0.03 0.4 N/A SNG 4 7 4 29 N/A Subtotal 6 13 16 47 0.4 Industria actor Bagasse N/A N/A 1,326 5 0.1 Coal 1 N/A 345 19 0.4 Distillate 2 N/A 407 150 39 LPG 1 N/A 71 18 N/A Mac Nuts N/A N/A 5 N/A N/A Residual 16 N/A 1,293 86 21 Wood Chips N/A N/A 6 210 14 Subtotal 20 N/A 3,452 488 75 lectricity actor Distillate 50 13 8,914 1,935 361 Landfill CH, 1 N/A 25 4 N!A MSW N/A N/A 764 104 N/A Residual 58 N/A 20,515 1,304 265 Subtotal 109 13 30,218 3,347 626 Total 137 26 33,758 3,897 702 Table 4.4 Stationary Source Non-COZ Emissions by Fuel, 1990 (tone) Fuel CH. N=O NO, CO NMVOC agasse N/A N/ 1,326 5 0.1 Coal 0.84 N/A 345 19 0.4 Distillate 52 14 9,331 2,088 401 Landfill CH4 1 N/A 25 4 N/A LPG 4 4 116 43 N/A Mac Nuts N/A N/A 5 N/A N/A MSW N/A NIA 764 104 N/A Residual 74 1 21,808 1,391 286 SNG 4 7 33 35 N/A Wood Chips N/A N/A 6 210 14 Total 120 26 33,757 3,897 702 Hawali Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4.4 s Table 4.4, on the previous page, summarizes estimated non-COZ greenhouse and precursor gas emissions from stationary sources by fuel. 4.3 Emissions from Residential Sector Stationary Sources Hawaii's residential sector stationary sources used non-utility LPG or utility- pmvided gas. Utility gas included synthetic natural gas or a propane air mixture provided to customers through utility distribution pipelines. For convenience, both types of utility gas will be aggregated and reported as SNG. Table 4.5 shows the amount and heat value of each fuel used in 1990 and their relative percentage of total residential sector fuel use. a e 4.5 es entia to onary ouree ue se, 7 0 Source Barrels Million Btu Pereent , 11 0 SNG N/A 592,400 40% Total 1,473,881 100°k (sate of Hawaii, 7BB7) These factors and the carbon coefficient used to calculate COZ emissions, presented in Table 4.6, were used to estimate emissions from all uses which are presented in Table 4.7. a e es en a onary ource mtss ons ac rs (Lbs.IMillion Btu) Source C CHI N=0 L .8 0. 021 A SNG 31.9 0.0021 N/A Sourco NO. CO NMVOC .0 1 A SNG 0.098 0.021 N/A (USEPA, 1895b, D7-11 antl D74e) Table 4.7 Residential Stationary Source Emissions, 1990 (Tons) Source CO= CHI Nz0 L ,4 1 N/A SNG 34.299 0.6 N/A Total 94,760 1.5 N/A Source NO, CO NMVOC LP 4 9 N/A SNG 29 6 N/A Total 72 15 N/A Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 45 The primary residential uses for these fuels are water heating, cooking, and clothes drying. The State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, D1-11 and D14-8) provided non-COZ emissions factors only for gas heaters. 4.4 Emissions from Commercial Sector Stationary Sources According to Air Emissions Reports made to the State of Hawaii Depariment of Health (State of Hawaii, 1991b), distillate fuels were used by federal, state, and county governments in boilers and diesel engines. Residual fuel oil was used by county and military facilities in boilers. These are the only uses of fuel purchased by the military that were specifically reported as used within the state and the emissions were included in the inventory. Table 4.8 summarizes fuel use by type of stationary commercial sector energy source in Hawaii in 1990. a le 4. ommercia tauonary ounce ue se, 79 Fue1/Source Barrels Million Btu Pereent Distillate' Boilers 9,751 56,800 1.3% Engines 761 4,433 0.1% LPGZ Various 381,524 1,530,293 34.0% Residual' Boilers 3,080 19,364 0.4% SNGr Various N!A 2,888,200 64.2% Total 4,499,090 100% sm~e a naaraii, ~ sum ' snare a Flaareii, i ~r In the commercial sector, LPG and SNG aze primarily used for water heating and cooking along with some heating and cooling applications. The emissions factors from the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995B, D1-11, D13-2, and D14-9) presented in Table 4.9 were used to calculate the greenhouse gas emissions. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 44i 1 a e ommerc a ovary ouree m se ons ac ors (LbsJMillion Btu) Source C CHI N20 isD ate of ers Diesel Engines 44 0.009 0.0044 LPG 37.8 0.0025 0.005 Residual 47.4 0.0035 0.103 SNG 31.9 0.0025 0.005 Source NO, CO NNNOC isG ate of ers .1 Diesel Engines 2.7 0.84 0.2 LPG 0.0025 0.02 N/A Residual 0.0035 0.038 N/A SNG 0.0025 0.02 N/A (USEPA, 7NSD, D1•i t, D1&2, enC D749) Table 4.10 reports total emissions in tons for the commercial sectors by stationary source type. ommerc a ovary ouree miss ons y ounce, (Tons) Source C02 CH. NZO Teti afe a ens 4, 1 Diesel Engines 354 0.02 0.01 LPG 104,989 2 4 Residual 1,886 0.03 1 SNG 167,222 4 7 Total 278,767 6 13 Source NO„ CO NNNOC ish ate of ers 4. 1 / Diesel Engines 5.9 2 0.44 LPG 1.9 15 N/A Residual 0.03 0.4 N/A SNG 3.6 29 N/A Total 15 47 0.44 The commercial sector stationary source greenhouse and precursor gas emissions by fuel type aze summarized in Table 4.11. ommerua ovary ource missions y ue , _ (Tons) Fuel COZ CHI Nz0 istil ate 4, 0.1 1 LPG 104,989 2 4 Residual 1,666 0.03 1 SNG 167,222 4 7 Total 278,767 6 13 Fuel NO, CO NNNOC isUllate 10 0.4 LPG 2 15 N/A Residual 0.03 0.4 N/A SNG 4 29 N/A Total 16 47 0.4 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 47 f 4.5 Emissions from Industrial Sector Stationary Sources Both fossil and biomass fuels were used in industrial sector stationary sources to produce mechanical energy for machines, pumps, and other devices, to run electric generators, and to provide steam or process heat. Fossil fuels produced about 25% of the total heat value of the energy used in this sector while biomass fuels produced the remaining 75%. Fossil fuels used included coal, distillate fuel oil, LPG, and residual fuel oil. Residual fuel oil accounted for over two-thirds of fossil fuel use in this sector. The amounts of fossil fuel used by type and stationary source, their heat value, and relative percentage of each used aze shown in Table 4.12. Table 4.12 IndustHal Stationary Souroe Fosail Fuel Use, 1990 FueUSource Quantity MIIIion Btu Percent Coal (Tons)' Boiler 7,809 167,894 2% Kiln 16,708 359,222 5% Distillate (Bbl)' Boilers 71,020 413,692 5% Engines 53,329 310,641 4°h Kilns/Process Heal 43,525 253,533 3% LPG (Bbl) Various 254,349 1,020,194 13°/a Residual (Bbl)' Boilers 784,134 4,929,850 63% Kilns/Pracess Heat 63,315 398,061 5% Total 7,853,087 100% ' state of Hawaii. 1991 b ' State of Hawaii, 1 B97 Table 4.13 summarizes the amounts of biomass fuel used by each type of industrial sector stationary source. Biomass fuels included bagasse, macadamia nut shells, and wood chips. Bagasse was used in the sugaz industry to produce steam, process heat, and electricity, accounting for 77% of the heat value of the biomass used. Hawaii's sugaz plantations produced 777 million kWh of electricity in 1990 and sold 51 % of this output to public utilities. Almost 90% of the electricity generated by the sugar industry was produced by steam boilers that burned bagasse, coal, distillate fuel oil, and/or residual fuel oil. Avery small Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-8 • amount of the sugaz industry's electricity was produced using diesel generators. Most of the remaining 10% was produced by hydroelectric generators which do not emit greenhouse gases (HSPA, 1991, 11). Table 4.13 Industrial Stationary Source Biomass Fuel Use, 1990 FueUSouree Tons MIIIion Btu Percent Bagasse' Boilers 1,072,015 17,796,000 98.0% Macadamia Nut Shells' Boilers 7,500 84,750 0.5% Wood Chips= Boilers 16,500 284,483 1.6% Total 18,165,233 100% ~ HSPA, 1991, 7 ~ State or Hawaii, 1997 b Macadamia nut processors on the Island of Hawaii burned macadamia nut shells to provide process heat. Wood chips and other biomass were used to generate electricity on Molokai in 1990, but the facility is no longer in use. Table 4.14 Industrial Stationary Source Emissions Faeton (LbaJMillion Btu) Source C CH4 N=O Bagasse Boilers' 0.237 N/A N/A Coal Boilers 56.0 0.0053 WA Coal Kilns 58.0 0.0022 N/A Distillate Boilers 44.0 0.0007 N/A Diesel Engines 44.0 0.009 N/A Distillate Kilns/PH 44.0 0.0022 N/A LPG 37.8 0.0029 N/A Macadamia Nut Boiler 0.47 N/A N/A Residual Boilers 47.4 0.0064 N/A Residual Kilns/PH 47.4 0.0022 N/A Wood Chip Boilers' 0.47 N/A N/A Source NO, CO NMVOC LPG 0.14 0.036 N/A Other Fuels/Sources As reported in DOH Air Emissions Inventory ' Bapaase is 23.7 % carDOn by weight (Paturau, 1999) ~ The ooelficient of wo00 is 0.471ba. par poun0 0l wood. This coel5cient a uaetl for maratlamina nut shells and wootl Chips. (USEPA, 1995b, D7-17, D74-7, and D744l, antl SIaPo M Hawaii, 1991D) HawaU Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-9 • The emissions factors for C and CH. from the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, DI-11, D14-7 - D14-8), presented in Table 4.14, were used to calculate C02 and CH, emissions for all industrial sector fuels and sources. Reports by covered source operators to the State of Hawaii Department of Health (State of Hawaii, 1991b) provided the amounts of fuel used and NOx, CO, and NMVOC emissions from stationary sources. NO„ CO, and NMVOC emissions for municipal solid waste and LPG were also calculated. According to the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, D14-7 D14-8), industrial stationary sources did not produce significant quantities of N,O. Table 4.15 displays industrial sector stationary source emissions by source. Table 4.15 Industrial Stationary Source Emissions, 1990 (tons) Source COr CH. Nz0 Bagasse Boilers not incuded N/A N/A Coal Boilers 17,065 0.44 WA Coal Kilns 36,511 0.40 WA Distillate Boilers 33,037 0.14 WA Diesel Engines 24,807 1.40 N/A Distillate Kilns/PH 20,247 0.28 N/A LPG 69,992 1.48 N/A Macadamia Nut Boiler not included N/A N/A Residual Boilers 424,120 15.78 N/A Residual Kilns/PH 7,291 0.09 N!A Wood Chip Boilers nol included N/A N/A Total 633,071 20 N/A Source NO, CO NMVOC Bagasse Boilers 1,326 5 0.1 Coal Boilers 54 19 0.4 Coal Kilns 291 N/A WA Distillate Boilers 30 8 0.5 Diesel Engines 358 125 27.5 Distillate Kilns/PH 19 17 11.5 LPG 71 18 N/A Macadamia Nut Boiler 5 N/A N/A Residual Boilers 968 79 16.8 Residual Kilns/PH 325 7 4.4 Wood Chip Boilers 6 210 14.0 Total 3,452 488 75 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-10 • Table 4.161ists industrial sector stationary source GHG emissions by fuel. Additional industrial energy sector emissions were produced by mobile sources, including agricultural and industrial off-highway vehicles and mobile equipment. The amounts of fuel used and the amounts of greenhouse and precursor gases produced are discussed in Chapter 5. a e n ua a ovary ounce mss ons y ue , (tons) Fuel CO= CH, N=D Bagasse notinduded N/A N/A Coal 53,578 1 N/A Distillate 78,092 2 N/A LPG 69,992 1 N/A Macadamia Nut Shells not induded N/A WA Residual 431,411 16 N/A Wood Chips not induded N/A NIA Total 633,071 20 N!A Fuel NO, CO NMVOC Bagasse 1,326 5 0.1 Coal 345 19 0.4 Distillate 407 150 39 LPG 71 18 N/A Mac Nut Shells 5 N/A N/A Residual 1,293 88 21 Wood Chips 6 210 14 Total 3,452 488 75 4.6 Emissions from Electricity Sector Stationary Sources Electricity sector fuel use data are the most complete of available Hawaii energy data. Hawaii's four regulated electric utilities, Hawaiian Electric Company, Inc. (HECO); Hawaii Electric Light Company, Inc.; Maui Electric Company; and Kauai Electric Division of Citizens Utilities each reported fuel use and sulfur dioxide, CO, NO„ and NMVOC emissions by individual generation unit to the State of Hawaii Department of Health's Clean Air Branch in annual Air Emissions Reports (State of Hawaii, 1991b). Table 4.16 summarizes electricity sector fuel use in 1990. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-11 • Table 4.17 Electric Utility Fuel Use, 1990 Fuel/Souroe Quantl Million Btu Peroent s Ilate Engines 1,018,544 5,933,078 6.5% Combustion Turbines 648,774 3,779,110 4.1% Landfill Methane Combustion Turbine 128,511 0.1 Municipal Solid Waste (Tons) Boiler 492,984 4,929,840 5.4% Residual (Bbl.) Boilers 12,250,444 77,018,539 83.9% Total 91,789,078 100% (Sb>te o! Hawaii, 1901 b) As shown in Table 4.17, in 1990, 83.9% of the fuel used in the electricity sector was residual fuel oil burned in boilers used to produce steam to drive generators. About 10.6°/a was distillate fuel oil used in diesel generators and simple-cycle combustion turbine generators. Finally, MS W was 5.4% of the fuel used to produce electricity and landfill methane 0.1%. The values reported in this section for 1990 aze for generation operated by the four electric utilities and two independent power producer operating in 1990. The independent power producers were the City and County of Honolulu's H-POWER gazbage-to-energy plant in the Campbell Industrial Pazk on Oahu, and Kapaa Generating Partners' landfill methane-fueled combustion turbine cogeneration plant in Kailua, Oahu. H-POWER, began full operation in 1990 and provided 45 MW of firm capacity. H-POWER generated 339,976 MWh and sold 309,513 MWh to HECO under a power purchase agreement. In addition, the 3.3 MW Kapaa landfill methane combustion turbine generator sold 8,846 MWh of electricity to HECO on an as available basis. Additional electricity was generated by the cogenerators at the two oil refineries, by wind farms on Oahu, Maui, and the Island of Hawaii, and by small independent hydroelectric plants on the Island of Hawaii. The fuel used by the cogenerators at the refineries was included in the industrial section of this chapter. The sugaz industry also produced significant amounts of electricity and sold about Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-12 51%, or 413,454 MWh to the electric utilities for resale to utility customers. Figure 4.18 summarizes electricity generation and sales in Hawaii in 1990. a e 4. 8 ec aty enera on and a es in Hatlpau ( h), 990 Source HE O HELCO KE MECO Total ee c flea Steam 8,371,778 476,826 80,724 248,750 7,178,078 Diesel - 124,886 182,809 484,812 792,487 Hydro - 23,052 23,052 Wind - - 93 93 Other 48,602 48,802 Net Generation 6,420,380 624,744 263,533 733,655 8,042,312 of to itiea Landfill Methane 8,846 8,846 MSW 309,513 309,513 Oil Refineries 41,086 41,086 Small Producers 1,261 20,838 17,287 39,386 Sugar Industry' 38,420 167,310 111,514 96,210 413,454 Wind 11,548 11,548 Subtotal 410,874 188,148 111,514 113,497 823,833 Isposltion o nergy Used by Company/Static (18,039) (33,951) (6,355) (32,156) (88,501) Energy Losses (344 428) (63 190) (25,834) (30,854) (464,106) Subtotal (360,487) (97,141) (32,189) (62,810) (552,607) Total Sold to Customers ,4 1 , The Super Industry eoW only a poNOn o/ pw,ror generated to tha uplidsa; ghoul hoe was used IMemelly. Sources: HECO Federal Eneryy Regulatory Commission (FERC) Fortn 1 for 19ad, pp.326.327, 401; HELCO, KE, and MECO FERC Mnual Reports, Schedule C for 1980; and UnWdiMad HSPA data Electricity is used by residential, commercial, and industrial customers, but the emissions produced in meeting their demands aze presented in this section rather than with the end use. Due to a lack of direct correspondence between the rate classifications used by the utilities and the economic sectors, such an apportionment would be extremely difficult in any event. Table 4.19, summazizes utility electricity sales based upon HECO's 1990 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Form No.l (401), and Schedules C from the HELCO, KE, and MECO 1990 Annual Reports to the Hawaii Public Utilities Commission. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-13 Table 4.19 Eloctlle U81ky SaNa In Howell by Reb Clauiflcatlon, 1990 MWh ClessMUtlon of Reba HECO HELCO KE MECO Total Residential Sales 1,857,105 1.657,105 Ruidential Comb. Lightlng, Heating, and Small Paver 273,856 115,188 266,809 655,853 Electric Service for Employees 1,173 2,807 3,980 Generel Lighting Service 202,322 88,501 235,820 526,643 Heating, Cooking, Refrigeration, Etc. 45,940 27,127 73,067 Comb. Power 8lnddeMal Lightlng 243,876 243,876 Small (or Comm) 1,594,707 1,594,707 Government Stete, Hwy, & Park Lighting 48,297 3,262 2,103 4,756 58,418 Govemmenbl Conbact 3,582 3,582 Large (or Ind.) 3,170,478 3,170,478 Generel Power 132,492 132,492 Primary Power 186,759 186,759 Intlustrial Confrect 147 147 IrtigaBon 3,400 3,400 Tobl 6,470,587 715,721 342,857 781,342 8,310,507 Peroent of Tobl 78% 9~ 4°ti 9X 100°k able 4.2 ec c tility missions actors bs./Million to Source C CH4 N20 is 1 ate Engines 44.0 0.009 0.0044 Combustion Turbines 44.0 0.0124 N/A Landfill Methane Combustion Turbine 31.9 0.0124 N/A Municipal Solid Waste (Tons) Boiler 28.8 N/A N/A Residual Boilers 47.4 0.0015 N/A Source NO, CO NMVOC Distillate Engines As reported in DOH Air Emissions Inventory Combustion Turbines As reported in DOH Air Emissions Inventory Landfill Methane Combustion Turbine 0.394 0.067 N/A Municipal Solid Waste (Tons) Boiler 0.31 0.042 N/A Residual Boilers As reported in DOH Air Emissions Inventory (USEPA, 1995b, D1-11 and D14-7 and Stata of Hawaii, 1991b) State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, DI-11 and D14-7) emissions factors were used to calculate electricity sector greenhouse gas emissions aze listed in Table 4.20. Table 4.21 displays emissions in tons by fuel type and stationary source. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-14 e a e 4. ecfne U ty m as ons, 199 ona) FuellSouroe COZ CH. Nz0 la ate Engines 473,815 27 13 Combustion Turbines 301,800 23 N/A Landfill Methane Combustion Turbine 7,441 1 N/A Municipal Solid Waste (Tons) Boiler 238,008 N/A N/A Residual Boilers 6,625,982 58 N/A Total 7,847,045 109 13 Fuel/Source NO, CO NMVOC rstrl ate Engines 8,015 1,725 295 Combustion Turbines 899 210 66 Landfill Methane Combustion Turbine 25 4 N/A Municipal Solid Waste (Tons) Boiler 764 104 N/A Residual Boilers 20,515 1,304 285 Total 30,218 3,347 626 Finally, Table 4.221ists electricity sector emissions by fuel type. able 4.22 lectric Utility Emissions by ue , 19 ons) Fuel COZ CH. Nz0 istillate 775,615 50 13 Landfill Methane 7,441 1 N!A Municipal Solid Waste 238,008 N/A N!A Residual 6,625,982 58 N/A Total 7,647,046 109 13 Fuel NOR CO NMVOC istillate 8,914 1,935 361 Landfill Methane 25 4 N/A Municipal Solid Waste 764 104 N/A Residual 20,515 1,304 265 Total 30,218 3,347 626 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 4-15 CHAPTER 5 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM MOBILE SOURCE FOSSIL FUEL COMBUSTION 5.1 Overview This section presents the inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels sold or distributed in Hawaii in mobile sources in 1990. Mobile sources include the engines of aircraft, ships and boats, and a variety of highway and non-highway vehicles. Except for emissions from highway vehicles, emissions from mobile sources were calculated using the general methodology described in Chapter 3. Section 5.5 describes the method used to calculate highway vehicle greenhouse gas emissions. This chapter begins with a summary of the greenhouse gas emissions from mobile sources. The following sections explain the calculation of the greenhouse gas emissions from each of the mobile source uses of fossil fuels. 5.2 Summary of Emissions from Mobile Energy Sources 5.2.1 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Mobile Sources Greenhouse gas emissions were calculated for transportation sector mobile sources, industrial sector mobile sources, and non-aviation military mobile sources. Transportation fuels used in Hawaii included aviation gasoline (Avgas), distillate fuel oil (diesel), motor gasoline, jet fuel, LPG, and residual fuel oil. 5.2.1.1 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Transportation Mobile Sources Table 5.1 displays estimated transportation sector mobile source fuel use and cazbon dioxide emissions in 1990 by category and type of fuel used. These are divided into in-state uses, overseas uses, and military uses. Transportation fuel use and emissions were dominated by jet fuel (57.2%), gasoline (26.2%), distillate Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-1 (8.7%), and residual (7.7%), with LPG (0.04%) and aviation gasoline (0.1%) making very small contributions to the total. An estimated 13,417,024 tons of COZ were produced from transportation mobile source fuel use. Table 6.1 Transportatlon Fuel Use and COT Emissiona, 1990 Uss/Fwl Bamis MIIIion Btu Tons C02 Percent COT Instate Aviation Fuel Avges 43,278 218,467 16,495 Jet Fuel 4,072,196 23,089,351 1,822,962 Subtotal 23,307,618 1,839,457 14% Overseas AviaUOn Fual Jet Fuel 11,483,568 65,111,831 5,140,742 38°h MiBtary Aviation Fuel Avges 1,546 7,804 589 Jet Fuel 1,585,532 8,988,966 709,780 Subtotal 8,997,770 710,369 5% Instate Marine Fuel Distillate 322,175 1,876,669 149,871 Gasoline 3.879 20,376 1,238 Residual 6,789 42,682 3,409 Subtotal 1,939,727 154,517 7% Overseas Marine Fuel Distillate 1,735,339 10,108,350 807,253 Residual 2,056,854 12,931,441 1,032,705 S u bto b I 23 , 039, 791 1, 839, 958 14 Highway Vehi°le Fuei Distillate 462,549 2,694,348 215,170 Gasoline 8,837,169 46,421,648 3,511,353 LPG 19,857 79,547 5,457 Subtotal 49,195,543 3,731,980 26°h Total Transportation Sector Fuel Use and COT Emiasfons Avges 44,824 226,271 17,084 0.1% Distillate 2,520,063 14,679,367 1,172,294 9°h Gasoline 8,841,048 46,442,024 3,512,591 26% Jet Fuel 17,141,296 97,191,148 7,673,484 57°h LPG 19.657 79,547 5,457 0.04% Residual 2,063,643 12,974,723 1,036,114 8°h Total 171,592,480 13,a 17,024 100% (State of Hawaii, 1897) 5.2.1.2 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Non-Transportation Mobile Sources Table 5.2 summarizes estimated non-transportation mobile sotuce fuel use and C02 emissions of fuel. Distillate fuel use accounted for 93% of industrial mobile source COZ emissions, Followed by gasoline at slightly less than 3%. LPG use was less than 3/1000 of one percent. Non-aviation military uses of distillate fuel Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-2 (which were not counted as in-state uses) produced 80% of estimated COZ emissions, while residual fuel oil uses emitted 14%, and gasoline 6%. Table 8.2 Non-Trensportatlon Mobils Source Fusl Use and CO= Emissions, 1990 Use/FUeI Barrels MIIIion Btu Tona COQ Percent COz AgNculturel Moblle Equipment Fusl Distillate 221,976 1,293,010 103,260 Gasoline 29,166 153,209 11,902 LPG 25 100 7 Subtotal 1,446,319 115,188 57% IndusViai Mobile Equipment Fuel Distillate 185,702 1,081,714 86,386 Gasoline 5,005 26,291 2,042 Subtotal 1,706,005 86,428 43% Total Industrial Moblle Source Fuel Uss and COZ Emissions Distillate 407,678 2,374,724 189,646 93% Gasoline 34,171 179,500 13,944 7°k LPG 25 100 7 0.003°b Total 2,554,324 203,596 100% Non-Aviation Military Fuel Distillate 834,246 4,859,483 388,078 80% Gasoline 64,735 340,053 26,416 6% Residual 128,216 806,094 69,349 14°~ Total 6,005,630 483,843 100% Ismm a Fiawe;i, t eel 5.2.1.3 Summary of Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Mobile Sources Figure 5.1 Percentages of CO= Emissions from Mobile Sources by End-Use, 1990 Non-Avn Military 3Z In-State Marux MBitaryAviation 1/. In-StateAviatbn 5: 13i Industrial - iZ Overseas Marine _ `''j"j'"~ ~'I.s:: I'll viii ij~jij ~!i`l '!Ilj ~ ";iii ialE~II~) 'g 9 y ~i,li.l...,.„,.ijj(j;;° Hi hwa Vehicle 'Ijijijj~ !i "^ii~j"!' :Sli!Ijj`~ ~'~~~li~ OverseasAvialion Agriculture 37i 1 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-3 e Figure 5.1 depicts the relative shaze of CO, emissions from each end-use of mobile source fuels sold or distributed in Hawaii in 1990. Table 5.3 summarizes mobile source fuel use and COz emissions by category. The values in the first section, in-state use, were included in the overall Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory. While in-state uses were only 42% of mobile source COZ emissions from fuels sold or distributed in Hawaii, only this amount resulted from non-military transportation fuel use in Hawaii. Further rationale for the exclusion of overseas and military fuel use will be presented below. Table b.3. Moblle Souree COz Emissions by Fuel, 1990 Fuel Barrels Mllllon Btu Tons COz Pereent COz InStata Use Avgas 43,278 218,467 16,495 Distillate 1,192,402 6.945,741 554,687 Gasoline 6,875,219 46,621,524 3,526,535 Jet Fuel 4,072,196 23,089,351 1,822,962 LPG 19,882 79,647 5,464 Residual 6,789 42,682 3,409 Total 76,997,412 5,929,551 42°h Overseas use Distillate 1,735,339 10,108,350 807,253 Jet FUel 11,483,568 65,111,831 5,140,742 Residual 2.056,854 12,931,441 1, 032,705 Total 88,151,622 6.980,700 49°h Military Use Avgas 1,546 7,604 589 Distillate 834,246 4,859,483 388,078 Gasoline 64,735 340,053 26,416 Jel Fuel 1,585,532 8,989,966 709,780 Residual 128,216 806,094 69,349 Total 15,003,400 1,194,212 8°k Total Moblle Souroe Use of Fusl Sold/DlaWbutsd In Hawaii Avgas 44,824 226,271 17,084 0.1°h Distillate 3,761,987 21,913,574 1,750,018 12°k Gasoline 8,939,954 46,961,577 3,552,951 25% Jet Fuel 17,141,296 97,191,146 7,673,484 54°/u LPG 19,882 79,647 5,464 0.04% Residual 2,191,859 13,780,217 1,105,463 6% Totel 180,152,434 14,104,463 100% (State of Hawaii, 1997) Figure 5.2 displays mobile source fuel use C02 emissions by category in graphic form. Overseas uses produced half of mobile source emissions and military uses Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-4 accounted for 8%. As a result, as stated above, only 42% of mobile source COZ emissions, or 5,929,550 tons, were attributed to Hawaii. Figure 5.2 Percentages of Mobile Source Fuel Use CO, Emissions by Category, 1990 Mi~tary 8'/. IrrSlate :i~:.. "sc v Overseas y-`i.'f::.~ 50'b =:ti:~r f~... 5.2.1.4 Overseas Mobile Source Fuel Use Overseas aviation and marine fuel uses were not included in the overall Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory presented in Chapter 2 or the summary of in-state energy sector greenhouse gas emissions in Chapter 3. In the case of jet fuel, available data did not discriminate between fuel used for overseas flights to and from the rest of the United States or foreign destinations nor by nationality of air carrier. In addition, based upon guidance from the Environmental Protection Agency (Sibold, 1995), emissions produced by flights between Hawaii and the rest of the United States were not counted as Hawaii emissions. Marine fuels sold as bunker fuel or exported were not included for similar reasons. Hawail Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-5 v 5.2.1.5 Military Mobile Source Fuel Use As noted in Section 3.2.2, fuel purchased by the armed forces was not included in the accounting of Hawaii energy use due to a lack of data on use in Hawaii. Emissions are reported here as a record of emissions from fuels sold to the military by Hawaii refiners or distributors. 5.2.1.6 Summary of Carbon Diozide Emissions from In-State Mobile Sources Table 5.4 Instate Mobile Source Fuel Use and CO= Emissions, 1990 Use/Fusl Barrola MIIIIon Btu Tons COz Peroent CO= Instate Avlatlon Fuel Avgas 43,276 218,467 16,495 Jet Fuel 4,072,796 23,089,351 1,822,962 Subtohl 23,307,818 1,839,457 31°h Instate Marine Fuel Distillate 322,175 1,876,669 149,871 Gasoline 3,879 20,376 1,238 Residual 6,789 42,682 3,409 Subtotal 7,939,727 154,517 3°h Highway Vehicle Fwl Distillate 462,549 2,694,346 215,170 Gasoline 8,837,169 46,421,648 3,511,353 LPG 19,832 79,547 5,457 Subtotal 49,195,543 3,731,980 63% Agrlcultuwl Mobile Equipment Fuel Distillate 221,976 1,293,010 103,260 Gasoline 29,166 153,209 11,902 LPG 25 100 7 Subtotal 1,446,319 115,168 2% Industrial Mobile Equipment Fuel Distillate 185,702 1,081,714 86,386 Gasoline 5,005 26,291 2,042 Subtotal 1,708,005 118,428 t°k Total Mobile Source Fuel Use Avgas 43,278 218,467 16,495 Distillate 1,192,402 6,945,741 554,687 Gasoline 8,875,219 46,621,524 3,526,535 Jet Fuel 4,072,196 23,089,351 1,822,962 LPG 19,857 79,647 5,464 Residual 6,789 42,682 3,409 Total 76,997,412 5,929,551 100°k (State M Hawaii, 1997) Table 5.4 stunmazizes the estimated 5,929,551 tons of COZ emissions produced from in-state mobile sources by category and fuel. Highway vehicles produced Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-6 63%, a total of 3,731,980 tons. In-state aviation produced 31 or 1,839,457 tons. The remaining categories, in-state marine (3%), agricultural mobile sources (2%), and industrial mobile sources (1 together produced 6% of in-state mobile source emissions, a total of 358,113 tons. Figure 5.3 shows the relative shazes of estimated mobile souuce CO, emissions produced by each category. Figure 5.3 CO= Emissions from In-State Mobile Sources by Category, 1890 Agricultural 2% !•i :ta:::.. li"4j''?jl In-State Aviation ~i%-"-:. =;x : _ !!!i'!!!I'rtj~ i!" v i r ~ st.~iY::;4-' jivli ii j ~ i - ~!iiii !j jli~,,~I , ~ Ij~ ij ~ijspjjiji;i,. r - In-State Marine Highway Vehicle ~i !IIf9! f . ,p I Ijjq$!II j! , 3% 63% !III I: EI :j4;!jj jji !ji~lilil!"' Industrial s! ui!i!`si, ill iiyi Li P! ~ 1 % Figure 5.4 COz Emissions from In-State Mobile Sources by Fuel, 1990 Military 8ti •::~rch :_s6~,, ^~~~ryr'~~'•• In-State ice:-. f:;lYp~: r::C-::: v:ly~ } ?i~~t~: vff _4 v _ht irr Overseas '"`''"'~'':v~~~~'~~"' Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-7 Figure 5.4 summarizes in-state CO, emissions from mobile sources by fuel. Gasoline was the primary source of mobile emissions at 59.5%, followed by in-state jet fuel use at 30.7% and distillate at 9.4°/a. Residual, aviation gasoline, and LPG combined totaled about 0.5%. 5.2.1.7 Non-Carbon-Dioxide Emissions from Mobile Sources Table 6.6 Trsnsportation Non-CO=GHG Emissions (Tonal, 7990 Uss/Fuel CH, N=O NO, CO NMVOC Instate Avladon Fuel Avgas 0.5 0.22 70 29 4 Jet Fuel 50.8 WA 7,389 3,117 462 Subtoal 51 0.22 7,459 3,146 466 Overseas AviaBon Fuel Jet Fuel 143 N/A 20,838 8,790 1,302 Millhry AvlaUon Fuel Avgas 0.02 0.07 3 1 0.2 Jet Fuel 20 N/A 2,877 1,214 180 Subtotal 20 0 2,880 1,275 180 Instate Marine Fuel Distillate WA 1.88 6,231 94 NIA Gasoline NIA 0.02 68 1 N/A Residual N/A 0.04 742 2 N/A Subtotal N/A 2 6,440 97 N/A Overseas Marine Fuel Distillate N/A 12 39,790 599 NIA Residual WA 13 43,074 849 N/A Subtotal NIA 25 82,864 1,248 N/A Highway Vehicle Fuel Distillate 9 5.39 2,2[8 1,434 425 Gasoline 702 438.80 10,825 106,207 17,227 LPG 2 NIA 26 70 27 Subtotal 712.57 444.78 [3,069 107,717 17,679 Tonal TrsnsportaUon Seetor Fuel Use and Non-COi GHG Emissions Avgas 1 0.2 72 31 5 Distillate 9 19 48,239 2,127 425 Gasoline 702 439 10,893 106,208 77,227 Jet Fuel 214 WA 31,102 13,721 1,944 LPG 2 N/A 26 70 27 Residual WA t3 43,216 651 NIA Total 927 471 733,547 122,207 19,628 Table 5.5 summarizes the transportation sector mobile source emissions of CH„ N2Q NOx, CO, and NMVOCs from transportation sector mobile source fuel use. Non-COZ emissions vazied significantly with use. Highway vehicles produced the lazgest quantities of these gases other than NOx, which was primarily produced by Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-8 overseas marine uses. In-state marine fuel use created the most of the NO, emissions. Table 5.6 shows non-transportation mobile source non-COZ emissions produced by agricultural mobile equipment, industrial mobile equipment, and non-aviation military fuel use. Table 6.6 Non-Transporfaaon Moblle Source Non-CO, Emisslorn, 1990 (Tone) Use/Fwl CH, Nr0 NO, CO NMVOC Agricultural Mobile Equipment Fusl Distillate 2.84 329.72 15.52 860 2,140 Gasoline 0.34 39.07 1.84 102 254 LPG 0.0002 0.03 0.001 0.1 0.2 Subtotal 3 369 17 962 2,394 Industrial Moblle Equlpment Fuel Distillate 4.9 2 1,433.0 454 108 Gasoline 0.1 0 35.0 11 3 Subtotal 5 2 1,468 465 111 Total IndusVial Mobile Source Fuel Use and Non-CO= GHG Emissions Distillate 8 332 1,449 1,314 2,248 Gasoline 0.5 39 37 113 257 LPG 0.0002 0.03 0.001 0.1 0.2 Total 8 377 1,485 1,427 2,505 Non-Aviation Military Fuel Distillate 22 11 6,439 2,041 486 Gasoline 2 1 451 143 34 Residual N/A 1 2,676 40 N/A Total 24 13 9,566 2,224 520 5.2.1.8 Summary of Non-COz Emissions from Mobile Sources Table 5.7 summarizes estimated non-COZ greenhouse gas emissions from in-state mobile source use by fuel. The lazgest shazes of these emissions come from the use of gasoline. The values for in-state use are included in the Hawaii inventory for the reasons explained above. The following stutvnarizes the relative contribution of mobile source in-state fuel use to the emissions of each type of non-CO2 greenhouse and precursor gas. Gasoline use creates the lazgest quantities emitted. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-9 • Methane. Gasoline use dominates in-state CH, emissions (91%), followed by in-state jet fuel use (6.5%). Distillate, LPG, and aviation gasoline each contribute less than one percent. • Nitrous Oxide. Gasoline use creates most of the N20 emissions, 58% of the total, followed by distillate at 41.4%. Aviation gasoline, LPG, and residual fuel oil produce only minor amounts of N,O. Table 6.7 Total Mobile Source Non-COZ Emissions by Fusl, 1990 (Tons) Fusl CH. N=O NO, CO NMVOC Instate Use Avgas 0.48 0.22 70 29 4 Distillate 16 339 9,897 2,842 2,673 Gasoline 703 478 10,930 106,321 17,484 Jet Fuel 50.80 NlA 7,389 3,117 462 LPG 2 0.03 26 70 27 Residual NIA 0.04 142 2 N/A Total 772 818 28,453 112,381 20,650 Overseas Use Distillate N/A 12 39,790 599 N/A Jet Fuel 143 N/A 20,836 8,790 1,302 Residual N/A 13 43,074 649 N/A Total 143 25 103,700 10,038 1,302 Military Use Avgas 0.02 0.01 3 1 0.2 Distillate 22 11 6,439 2,041 486 Gasoline 2 1 451 143 34 Jet Fuel 20 N/A 2,877 1,214 180 Residual N/A 1 2,676 40 N/A Total 44 13 12,446 3,439 700 To[al Mobile Source Use of Fuel SoINDIsMbuted In Hawaii Avgas 1 0.2 72 31 5 Distillate N/A 362 56,126 5,482 N/A Gasoline 705 479 11,381 106,464 17,518 Jet Fuel 214 N/A 31,702 13,121 1,944 LPG 2 0.03 26 70 27 Residual NIA 14 45,892 691 NIA Total 921 856 144,598 125,858 19,493 • Oxides of Nitrogen. All uses create NOx emissions with gasoline (38.4%), diesel (34.7%), and jet fuel (25.9%) dominating the in-state emissions. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-10 • Carbon Monoxide. Gasoline use creates most of the in-state cazbon dioxide emissions (94.6%). In-state jet fuel use emissions (2.7%) and diesel use emissions (2.5%) aze also significant. • Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds. Gasoline use creates 84.6% of the NMVOCs with most of the remainder produced by distillate uses. 5.3 Emissions from Aviation Fuel Use Table 5.8 summarizes reported aviation fuel sales and distribution in Hawaii in 1990 by category of use. Only 24% of the jet fuel (4,072,196 barrels), but 97% of aviation gasoline (43,278 barrels) was used for in-state flights. Together, they represented 24% of the total heat value of aviation fuels sold or distributed in Hawaii. Table 6.8 Aviation Fuel Sold or DlaMbutsd in Hawaii, 1990 Fuel Instate Overseas Military Total Jet Fuel Barrels 4,072,196 11,483,566 1,585,532 17,141,296 Btu 23,089,351 65,117,837 8,989,966 97,191,148 Percent 24% 67°k 9°~ 100% Aviation Gasoline Barrels 43,278 0 1.546 44,824 Btu 218,467 0 7,804 226,272 Percent 97% 0% 3°~ 100°k (Slate of Hawaii, 1997) The emission factors from the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, D1-5 and D13-16) as reproduced in Table 5.9, were used to calculate greenhouse gas emissions from aviation fuels. Table 5.9 Jet Fuel and Aviation Gasoline Emissions Factors (Lbs./Million Btu) Fuel C CH, N=0 Jet Fuel 43.5 0.0044 N/A Avgas 41.6 0.133 0.002 Fuel NO, CO NMVOC Jet Fuel 0.64 0.27 0.04 Avgas 0.18 53.03 1.19 (USEPA, 1995b. D7-5 and D73-16) Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-11 Figure 5.5 depicts in-state use of jet fuel which represented 24% of total COZ emissions from aviation fuel sold or distributed in Hawaii. Overseas commercial aviation use produced 67%, while military use was 9%. Figure 5.5 Percentages of Aviation Fuel CO= Emissions by Activity, 1990 Military In-State 9% 24% Oversees 67% Table 5.10 summarizes calculated greenhouse gas emissions for jet fuel and aviation gasoline by use. In-state use of jet fuel produced 1,822,962 tons of COz, 51 tons of CH„ 7,389 tons of NO„ 3,117 tons of CO, and 462 tons of NMVOC. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-12 Table 6.10 Emissloru from Aviation Fuels Sold or Dbtributed In Hawaii, 1990 (Tons) Fwl Instate Owrssas Military Total Jat Fuel C02 1,822,962 5,140,742 709,780 7,673,484 CH, 51 143 20 214 Nz0 N/A WA N/A N/A NO, 7,389 20,836 2,877 31,101 CO 3,117 8,790 1,214 13,121 NMVOC 482 7,302 180 1,944 Aviation Gasoline COZ 16,495 WA 589 17,084 CH4 0.48 WA 0.02 0.50 N=0 0.22 NIA 0.07 0.23 NO, 69.9 N/A 2.5 72.4 CO 29.5 N/A 7.1 30.5 NMVOC 4.37 N/A 0.16 4.53 Aviation Fuels Total COQ 1,839,457 5,140,742 710,370 7,690,569 CH, 51 143 20 214 Nz0 0.22 N/A 0.01 0.23 NO, 7,459 20,836 2,879 31,174 CO 3,147 8,790 1,215 13,151 NMVOC 466 1,302 180 1,948 5.4 Emissions from Marine Fuel Use Ships and boats operating in Hawaiian waters used distillate fuel, motor gasoline, and residual fuel oil. Some fuel was used in-state, some was used for overseas bunkers or was exported, and some was sold to the military. As with the aviation fuel discussed in the previous section, only marine fuel used in-state were included in the overall Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory. Some portion of military purchases of 834,246 barrels of diesel fuel, 64,735 barrels of motor gasoline, and 128,216 barrels of residual fuel oil in 1990 may have been used for ships or boats, but data were not available to determine actual use. Emissions from military uses of these fuels aze estimated in Section 5.6.3 as non-aviation military fuel uses. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-13 Table 5.11 depicts marine use of distillate fuels, motor gasoline, and residual fuel oil by category. In-state marine use of distillate fuel of 322,175 barrels accounted for 16% of the total. All reported marine motor gasoline use (3,879 barrels) occurred in-state, but only three-tenths of one percent of marine use of residual fuel oil (6,798 barrels) was used by ships in-state. Tabls 6.11 Marine Fusl Sold or Dlstributsd in Hawaii, 1990 Fuel In3fats Overseas Total DisOilate Bartels 322,175 1,735,339 2,057,514 Btu 1,876,669 10,108,350 11,985,019 Percent 16°~ 84°h 100°h Motor Gasoline Bartels 3,879 0 3,879 Btu 20,376 0 20,376 Percent 100°~ 0°h 100°~ Residual Fuel Oil Barrels 6,789 2,056,854 2,063,643 Btu 42,682 12,931,441 12,974,124 Percent 0.3% 99.7% 100°k (State o/ Hewall, 1997) Table 5.12 displays the emission factors from the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, D1-5, D13-16) used to calculate emissions from marine fuels. Table 5.12 Marine Fuel Emissions Factors (LbsJ Million Btu) Fuel C CH, N°0 Distillate 44 NIA 0.002 Gasoline 42.8 0.011 0.0044 Residual 47.4 NIA 0.002 Fuel NO, CO NMVOC Distillate 6.64 0.1 N!A Gasoline 3.54 1.1 0.24 Residual 6.64 0.1 NIA (USEPA, 19850, D7-5 end D73-15) As Figure 5.6 shows, only 8% of total COz emissions were from marine fuel use by ships and boats operating in state waters. A total of 154,517 tons of COZ was emitted from in-state marine fuel use out of a total of 1,994,475 tons from all marine fuel sold, distributed, or refined in Hawaii. Of these fuel uses, the greatest amount of C02 emissions, 149,871 tons, was produced by using distillate fuel. Hawaii Greenhouse Gaa Inventory 5-74 Residual marine fuel use emitted 3,409 tons, and motor gasoline use on boats emitted 1,238 tons. Figure 5.6 Percent of Marine Fuel CO, Emissions by Activity, 1990 In-State 8% Overseas 92% _ Table 5.13 Marine Fuel Emissions, 1890 (Tons) Fuel Instate Overseas % Instate Total Dist{Ilate Fuel COz 749,871 807,253 i6% 957,124 N20 2 10 16°~ 12 NO, 6,231 33,560 16% 39,790 CO 94 505 16°h 599 Motor Gasoline COz 1,238 NIA 100% 1,238 N20 0.02 N/A 100°~ 0.02 NO, 68 N/A 100% 68 CO 1 NIA 100°k 1 Residual Fuel OII C02 3,409 1,032,705 0.3% 1,036,114 Nz0 0.04 13 0.3°~ 13 NO, 142 42,932 0.3% 43,074 CO 2 647 0.3°k 649 Marine Fuels Total C02 154,517 1,839,958 8% 1,994,475 N20 2 23 B% 25 NO, 6,440 76,492 8°h 82,932 CO 97 1,152 8% 1,249 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-15 Table 5.13, on the previous page, summarizes greenhouse gas emissions from marine fuels used in-state and overseas. In-state distillate fuel use represents 16% of marine uses of fuel sold or distributed in-state. It also accounts for the lazgest emissions of greenhouse and precursor gases from in-state marine uses. Almost 97% of CO„ over 99% of NZO, 97% of NO„ and 97% of CO in the in-state marine category come from diesel combustion. Based upon EPA formulas, no CH, or NMVOC emissions were calculated for marine uses. 5.5 Emissions from Highway Vehicle Fuel Use Highway vehicles include passenger cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles using diesel, gasoline, or propane as fuel. The methodology described in Chapter 13 of the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, 013) was applied. 5.5.1 Calculation of Emissions from Highway Diesel and Gasoline Use Table 5.14 Estimated Vehicle Mlles Traveled on Hawaii's Roads, 1890 Type of Road Annual VMT Percent Rural IMerstate 101,835,000 1% Other Principal Arterial 96,360,000 1% Minor Arterial 1,213,625,000 15% Major Collector 612,835,000 8°h Minor Collector 131,765,000 2°k Local 653,350,000 8°h Urban Interstate 1,399,045,000 17°~ Other Freeway & Expressway 797,525,000 10% Other Principal Arterial 885,490,000 11% Minor Arterial 640,940,000 6°h Collector 479,245,000 6Y° Loral 1,051,565,000 13°k Tote I 8,063, 580, 000 100°~ (State or Hawaii, 19e6a) Table 5.14 shows the estimated vehicle miles traveled on Hawaii's roads in 1990. To calculate these values, first, the State of Hawaii Department of Transportation estimate of daily vehicle miles traveled (VMT) in 1990 by type of roadway (State of Hawaii, 1996a) was converted to an estimate of annual vehicle miles traveled. Daily vehicle miles traveled were multiplied by 365. Based upon this Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-16 calculation, Hawaii's vehicles traveled 8.063 billion miles in 1990. Given the concentration of population on Oahu, most of this travel (65%) was on wban roadways. Next, the estimate of the percentage of roadway use by vehicle class, as presented in Table 5.15, was obtained. Table 5.15 Travel Aetivay by Roadway Type and Vehiels Class in Hawaii, 7990 Passenger LIgM Heavy Motor- Roadway Type Cans Trucks Vshicles cycles Rural Interstate 77.8% 16.3°h 5.5°k 0.4°h Other PrinGipel Artedal 81.8°h 10.2°/a 7.5Yo 0.5% Minor Artedal 86.7% 9.3°h 3.6°h 0.4% Major Colector 82.1% 12.1°h 5.2°h 0.6°~ Minor Colector 79.8% 12.5% 7.0°h 0.6% Local 78,2% 18.3% 3.3°h 0.2% Urban Intestate 87.0°h 10.7°k 2.1°h 0.2°k Other Freeway 81.0°k 15.4°h 3.3°k 0.4% Other Pdncipal Artedal 81.0°~ 12.8% 5.6°h 0.6% Minor Arterial 83.6% 10.5% 5.4% 0.4% Collector 88.9°~ 7.5°h 3.0°~ 0.6% Local 86.6°h 11.2°k 1.9°k 0.3% (8tate M Hawaii, 1 aBea) Table 5.16, on the following page, displays total annual VMT by vehicle. This value represents the result of multiplying estimated VMT by roadway type (Table 5.14) by the estimated percentage of roadway use by vehicle class (Table 5.15) to produce an estimate of total annual VMT by vehicle. Registration data for all fow counties were obtained from the City and County of Honolulu's Department of Data Services (C&C, 1996). The numbers of vehicles conforming to each of the EPA's seven vehicle types were compazed with the vehicle miles traveled by roadway type and class of vehicle data on Table 5.16 to determine VMT by vehicle type and installed emission control technology. A total of 889,426 vehicles was registered in 1990. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-17 Table 6.16 Vehlels Mlles Traveled in Hawail by Roadway Typo and Vehicle Class, 1990 Passenger LIgM Heavy Motor- Total Roadway Type Ears Trucks Vehicles cycles VMT Runal Interstate 7'9,217,447 16,629,757 5,600,925 386,871 101,835,000 Other Prindpal Arterial 7'8,861,217 9,790,178 7,188,167 520,440 96,360,000 Minor Artedal 1,051,664,317 112,895,038 44,077,646 4,987,999 1,213,625,000 Major Collector 503,443,340 74,172,646 31,589,193 3,629,822 612,835,000 Minor Collector 105,160,711 16,497,242 9,280,354 828,694 131,765,000 Local 510,905,980 119,549,983 21.324,691 1,569,347 653,350,000 Subtotal 2,32.9,253,010 349,534,842 119,060,976 11,921,172 2,809,770,000 Urban Intestate 1,216,469,628 149,697,815 29,939,583 2,937,995 1,399,045,000 Other Freeway 645,920,283 122,517,386 28,028,026 3,059,306 797,525,000 Other PrinGpal Arterial 718,973,461 113,435,896 49,363,234 5,717,809 885,490,000 Minor Arterial 5;15,991,843 67,379,458 34,749,844 2,818,854 640,940,000 Collector 4'<!6,199,288 35,891,617 14,296,837 2,857,259 479,245,000 Local 910,183,137 118,180,133 20,308,875 2,892,855 1,051,565,000 Subtotal 4,451,737,640 607,102,105 174,686,378 20,283,877 5.253,810,000 Total 6,780,990,650 956,638,946 293,747,354 32,205,050 8,063,560,000 (State o! Hawaii. 19e6a) The seven EPA vehicle types were defined as follows: Light Duty Giasoline Passenger Cars (LDGV). A passenger car is any gasoline- powered vehicle with a rated gross vehicle weight of less than 8,500 pounds, designed primarily to carry 12 or fewer passengers, and not possessing special features such as four-wheel drive for off-road operation. There were 807,6241ight duty passenger cars registered in l~awaii in 1990, representing 90.8% of all registered vehicles. Light Duty Illiesel Passenger Csrs (LDDV). This is a passenger car as described for LDGV above, but powered by a diesel engine. The 3,075 light duty diesel passenger cars registered in l~lawaii in ] 990 were but 0.3% of all registered vehicles. Light Duty Caasoline Trucks (EDGY). An LDGT is a vehicle having gross vehicle weight less than 8,500 pounds, designed primarily for transportation of cargo or more than 11 passengers, or which are equipped with special features far oft=road operation. In 1990, 49,468 light duty gasoline trucks were registered in Hawaii, 5.5% of all vehicles. Light Duty Diesel Trucks (EDDY). Alight truck is as described for LDDT, but powered by a diesel engine. Only 1,199 light diesel trucks were registered in 1990; one-tenth of one percent of all vehicles. Heavy Duty Gasoline Vehicles (HDGV). A heavy duty vehicle has a gross vehicle rating greater than 8,500 pounds. This includes large pickups, large vans, heavy trucks, and buses. The 8,378 heavy duty gasoline vehicles were 0.9 of the total. Heavy Duty Diesel Vehicles (HDDV). These fit the same criteria as HDGV, but are diesel engine powered. There were 15,266 registered heavy duty diesel vehicles, or 1.7% of all registered vehicles. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-18 Motorcycles (MCYC). Motorcycles include all registered two-wheel andthree-wheel powered vehicles. There were 12,734 in 1990, or 1.4% of registered vehicles. (IISEPA, 199Sb, D13-6 through D13-11) The fuel economy values cited from the OECD Estimation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions & Sinks (August 1991) by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources greenhouse gas inventory (State of Wisconsin, 1993, Table D-2) were used in calculating the amount of fuel used by each vehicle type/emission control technology pair. Where registration data were not sufficient to identify emission controls (identified on the tables as "No Data"), those vehicles' emissions were considered to be uncontrolled. Table 5.17.a Automobile Gasoline and Diesel Use In Navroii, 1990 LDGV Fraction of Fuel COnir01 Automobile VMT by Economy Bamis Technology Rsglsfratlons Rsglstro0ons Vshlele Type (miles/gal) Used Uncontrolled and Non-catalyst Controls (<7975) 67,832 0.084 567,372,252 20.92 645,739 Oxidation Catalyst (1975.1980) 146,736 0.181 1,227,354,858 20.92 1,396,880 Early Thrsa-Way Catalyst (7881-1988) 408,802 0.504 3,417,700,153 22.11 3,680,408 Three-Way Catalyst (1968>) 180,057 0.197 1,338,776,691 27.99 1,138,822 No Data ~ 24,397 0.030 204,065,645 20.92 232,252 Subtotal 807,624 0.996 6,755,269,598 7,094,101 LDDV FraeOon of Fuel COrItrOI Automobile VMT by Economy Barrels Technology Reglstratlons Rsglstradons Vehicle Typa (mileslgal) Used Uncontrolled (<1982) 1,621 0.002 13,558,651 20.92 15,431 Moderate Controls (1882-7984) 964 0.001 8,063,257 20.92 9,177 Advanced Controls (1985-1980) 479 0.001 4,006,535 24.93 3,826 No Data' it 0.000 92,008 20.92 105 Subtotal 3,075 0.004 25,720,452 28,540 LDV Total 810,699 1.000 6,780,990,050 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-19 Table 5.17.b Llpht Truck Gasoline and Dlewl Uw In Hawaii, 1990 LDGT Erection of Fuel Control Light Truck VMT by Economy Barrels Technology Reglstratons Repistra6ora Vehlele Type (mlles/pal) Used Unwnfrolbd and Nontabyst Controls (c1975) 5,053 0.100 95,387,302 14.09 161,153 oxldatlon cbyet 11975-t eeo) 10,101 0.199 790,640,397 14.09 322,747 Early Thrw-Way CNayst (7881.7939) 24,230 0.479 458,246,593 16.20 670,186 Thras-Way Cabyst (1963>) 9,364 0.185 176,730,888 22.11 190,315 No Data' 690 0.014 73,022,859 14.09 22,006 SubtMal 49,488 0.976 934,007,718 1,365,808 LDDT Freetlon of Fuel Control Light Truck VM7 by Economy Barrels Technology Reglstrations Registra6ona Vehcle Type (milealgal) Used Uncontrolled (4932) 181 0.004 3,418,0(19 74.09 5,773 Modarete Controls (1982-1984) 287 0.006 5,416,671 74.09 9,153 Advanced Corrtrob (1935.71180) 721 0.014 73,607,734 10.11 17,890 No Dab' 70 0.000 138,734 14.09 319 Subtotal 1,199 0.024 22,629,228 33,735 LDT Tobl 50,687 1.000 956.636,946 Table 5.17.e Heavy Vehieb Gaadlrw and Dbwl Use in HawaO, 7990 HDGV FreMion of Foal Control Heavy Truck VMT by Economy Barrels Technology Registrations Registrations Vehicle Typa (mileslgal) Usad Uncontrolled (<7879) 4,236 0.277 81,402,185 10.62 182,500 Nonsatayst Controls (7981-7989) 3,299 0.216 83,398,083 10.62 142,131 Three-Way Cablyst (1989>) 400 0.026 7,686,703 10.62 17,233 No Data' 443 0.029 11,513,024 10.62 19,086 SutNObl 8,37!1 0.548 160,997,994 360,950 HDDV Froefion of Fuel Control Heavy Truck VMT by Economy Barrels Technology Registre0ons Registretions Vehicle Type (milaslgal) Used Uncontrolled (c1932) 3,372 0.221 64,798,906 6.89 223,923 Moderate Controls (79!12-7984) 855 0.056 16,430,328 7.25 53,956 Advanced Controls (19!15-7990) 2,360 0.154 45,357,548 10.62 101,676 No Data' 321 0.027 6,18!1,579 6.89 21,317 Subtotal 6,906 0.452 732,749.360 400,874 HDV Total 15,266 7.000 293,747,354 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-20 Table 6.17.d Motorcycle Gasoline Uss in Hawaii, 1990 MCYC Frsetlon of Fuel Control Motorcycle VMT by Economy Barrels Technology Raglstratlons Registntlora Vehicle Type (mileslpaq Used Uncontrolled (<1978) 1,074 0.084 2,711,951 30.11 2,144 Non{atalyst Conltrols (1978-1990) 11,528 0.904 29,109,284 50.00 13.862 No Data 1 _ 152 0.012 383,814 30.11 304 MCYC Total 12,754 1.000 32,205,050 16,310 Table 6.17.e Summary of EstlmatW Gasoline and Dlssel Use fn Hawaii, 1880 Rsglstratlons VMT Fwl Bamis 689,426 6,063,579,400 Gasoline 6,837,169 Diesel 462,549 ~ Where emission control data wes rat available, the value for a vahiob with uncontrolled emissions was used. SouRaa: Registraaon:s: (CEC. 1998); Fuel Economy (USD0T,1991, Table VM-1) Fuel Econonry Values: OECD Esamafbn o/Greenhouse Gas Emissions d Sinks (August 1991 Revision) Methodobgy, p.2-08 snd Emissions FeQMS. Tables 2-19 tllrouph 2-30, hom Sfate of Wiswnain, 1993, TeDle 0.2 Table 5.17.e provides total fuel use. Gasoline use in highway vehicles was estimated ti0 be 8,837,169 barrels. Diesel use in highway vehicles was estimated at 462,549 barrels. With the quantities of 1990 highway gasoline and diesel fuel use estimated as presented in the preceding tables (Tables 5.17.a through e), fuel use was then multiplied lby the State Workbook greenhouse and precursor gas emission factors for each vehicle class (USEPA, 1995b, D13-7 - D13-12). The greenhouse gas emissions factors for highway gasoline and diesel fuel use by vehicle type and emission control technology are presented in Tables 5.18.a through g. Some portion of rnilitary purchases of 834,246 barrels of diesel fuel and 64,735 barrels of motor gasoline in 1990 may have been used for highway vehicles or off-road vehicles. rQilitary uses and emissions are discussed in section 5.5.3.1. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-21 Table 6.18.a Gasoline Automobile Emkntions Factors (LbsJMlllion Btu) Technology C CH4 N=O CO NO, NMVOC UneontrolkW and Nonutalyst Controls (<1976) ~ 42.8 0.069 0.002 16.198 0.862 2.519 Oxidation Catalyst (1976-1980) 42.8 0.036 0.011 5.171 0.641 0.707 Early Three-Way Catalyst (1981.1988) 42.8 0.025 0.029 1.945 0.331 0.420 Three-Way Catalyst (1988>) 42.8 0.016 0.015 2.467 0.396 0.530 Table 6.16.b Diesel Automobile Emiulons Faetore (LbsJMllllon Btu) Technology C CH4 N=O CO NO, NMVOC Uncontrolled (<1962) 44.0 0.002 0.004 0.331 0.309 0.161 Moderate Controls (1982-1984) 44.0 0.004 0.004 0.354 0.376 0.119 Advanced Controls (1986.1990) 44.0 0.007 0.004 0.552 0.420 0.186 Table 5.18.e Gasoline Light Truck Emissions Factors (LbsJMillion BW) Technology C CH. N=O CO NO, NMVOC Uncontrolled and Noncatalyst Controls (<7975) 42.6 0.059 0.002 15.225 0.906 2.917 Oxidaton Catalyst (1975.1980) 42.8 0.031 0.011 4.154 0.552 0.663 Early Three-Way Catalyst (1981-1888) 42.8 0.032 0.029 4.199 0.464 0.530 Three-Way Cahlyst (1988>) 42.8 0.025 0.015 2.939 0.420 0.464 Table 5.18.d Diesel Light Truck Emissions Factors (LbsJMillion Btu) Technology C CH4 N=O CO NO, NMVOC Uncontrolled (<7982) 44.0 0.000 0.004 0.420 0.376 0.221 Moderate Controls (1982-1984) 44.0 0.003 0.004 0.309 0.331 0.133 Advanced CoMrola (1985-1990) 44.0 0.005 0.004 0.464 0.354 0.199 Table 6.18.e Gasoline Heavy Vehlele Emissions Factors (Lbs./Million Btu) Technology C CH. N2O CO NO, NMVOC Uncontrolled (<1979) 42.8 0.044 0.001 19.579 0.773 2.475 Non-catalyst Controls (1981-1989) 42.8 0.022 0.001 7.602 0.641 0.398 Three-Way Catalyst (1989>) 42.8 0.022 0.001 1.613 0.508 0.309 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-22 Table 5.18.f Dksel Heavy Vehicle Emiuions Factors (LbsJMillion Btu) Technology C CH, Ns0 CO NO, NMVOC Uncontrolled (<1982) 44.0 0.002 0.004 1.127 2.232 0.398 Moderate Controls (1982-1984) 44.0 0.022 0.004 1.392 1.989 0.267 Advanced Controls (1986-1990) 44.0 0.011 0.004 1.149 0.840 0.221 Table 6.18.8 Gasoline Motorryele Emissions Factors (LbsJMillion Btu) Technology C CH, N=O CO NO, NMVOC Uncontrolled (<1979) 42.8 0.287 0.002 20.33 0.155 5.524 Non~atalyst Controls (1978-1990) 42.8 0.155 0.002 13.038 0.53 2.143 (USEPA, 7995b, D73-7 - D19-12) Semnd Edifbn, 19e5, PP. Dt3-7 Miouph D-13-12. Emissions from highway gasoline and diesel fuel use in Hawaii for 1990 were then calculated and aze summarized by vehicle type in Tables 5.19.a through g. Table 5.19.a Emluions from Gasoline Automobiles in Havrail, 1990 (Tons) Control CO= CH. Nz0 NO, CO NMVOC UrleoMrolled and Non-catalyst Controls (<7975) 263,503 117 3 1,462 27,472 4,272 Oxidation Catayst (1975.1980) 570,016 132 40 2,352 18,972 2,594 Early Three-Way Catalyst (1981.1988) 1,501,840 242 280 3,200 18,802 4,060 Three-Way Catalyst (1988>) 464,712 48 45 1,190 7,379 1,585 No Data' 94,773 42 1 526 9,881 1,537 LDDG Total 2,800,071 539 369 8,204 72,625 12,511 ' Valves for unconbdled emissions used Table 619 b Emissions from Diesel Automobiles in Havwli, 1990 (Tons) Control C02 CH4 N=O NO, CO NMVOC Uncontrolled (<1982) 7,178 0.09 0.180 13.89 14.9 7.24 Moderate Controls (1882-1884) 4,269 0.11 0.107 10.05 9.5 3.18 Advanced Controls (1985-1990) 1,780 0.08 0.045 4.68 6.2 2.07 No Data' 49 0.00 0.001 0.09 0.1 0.05 LDDV Total 13,276 0.3 0.3 29 31 13 Values for un[onbolled emissions useo Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-23 Taws 6.19.c Emissbm from Light Gasoline Trucks In Hawai1,1990 (Tons) Control Cq CH. NCO NO, CO NMVOC Uncontrolled and Non-catalyst Controls (<7976) 65,761 25 0.8 383 6,444 1,235 Oxidatlon Catalyst (1976.1980~i 131,457 26 9.3 467 3,515 561 Earfy Three-Way Catalyst (1881.1988) 273„479 56 51.0 817 7,391 933 rnrs.-way cwlyst (1999>) 77„861 12 7.5 210 1,469 232 No Data' 8,.980 3 0.1 52 880 169 IDGT Total 557,.337 123 69 1,830 19,699 3,129 ' Valuae for uncontrdlstl emluions uwtl Table 5.19.d Emisslom from LIgM Dlsssl Trucks in Nawaii, 1980 (Tom) Control CO= CH, NCO NO, CO NMVOC Uncontrolled (c1882) 2,665 - 0.067 6.3 7.1 3.7 Moderate Controls (1982-1984) 4,258 0.08 0.107 8.8 B.2 3.5 Advanced Conbob (1985.1890) 8,322 0.26 0.208 18.4 24.2 10.4 No Data' 148 - 0.004 0.3 0.4 0.2 IDDT Total 15,414 0.3 0.4 34 40 18 ' VNuae for uncontrolled smiesione usetl Table 6.19.e Emlpiom from Heavy Gasoline Vehicles In Hawaii, 1890 (Tom) Control COr CH. NCO NO, CO NMVOC Uncontrolled (<7979) 74,471 21 0.48 371 9,385 1,186 Non-catalyst Controls (1981-1989) 57,998 8 0.37 239 2,838 149 Three-Way Catalyst (1989>) 7,032 1 0.05 23 73 14 No Data' 7,788 2 0.05 39 981 124 HDGV Total 147,290 33 1 672 13,277 1,473 ' Veluaa for unconholletl emiseiona uestl Table 6.19.f Emisslom from Heavy Diesel Vehicles In Hawaii, 1990 (Tons) Control C03 CH. NTO NO, CO NMVOC Uncontrolled(<1982) 104,166 1.3 2.6 1,456 735 260 Moderate Controls (1882.1984) 25,101 3.5 0.6 313 219 45 Advanced Controls (1985-1990) 47,298 3.3 1.2 249 340 65 No Data' 9,916 0.1 0.2 138.57 70 25 HDDV Total 186,480 B 5 2,156 1,364 395 ' Values for uncontrdletl emieaions ulNtl Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Im~entory 5-24 Table 619 g Emissions from Mororeyclas In Hawall 1990 (Tons) Control COi CFt~ N=O NO, CO NMVOC Uncontrolled (4979) 875 1.6 0.01 0.9 115 31 Non-catalyst ConfroXS (1978-1990) 5,656 5.8 0.07 19.3 475 76 No Data' _ 124 0.2 0.00 0.1 16 4 MCYC Total 6,655 7 0.09 20 605 114 ' Valusa for unoanboMed amiaelons used Table 5.20 lists total highway gasoline and diesel vehicle greenhouse gas emissions and the overall total for highway vehicle emissions. Table 6.20 Total Highway GasoOna and Disssl Vehlele Emissions in Newell, 1990 (Tons) Fuel COz CH. N=O NO, CO NMVOC Gasoline 3,511,353 702 439 10,825 106,207 17,227 Dlswl 215,170 9 5 2,218 1,434 425 Tohl 3,726,523 711 444 13,044 107,641 17,652 5.5.2 Calculation of Emissions from Highway LPG Use There were numerous propane vehicles on Hawaii's highways in 1990, including school busses, Nandi-Van vehicles, cazs, trucks (State of Hawaii, 1995a). Available motor vehicle registration data reported all vehicles as either gasoline or diesel fueled and did not provide numbers, types, or vintage necessazy to determine emission control technologies of LPG vehicles. However, State of Hawaii Dtapartment of Taxation data indicated that 834,000 gallons, or 19,857 barrels of LPG were taxed for highway use in 1990 (State of Hawaii, 1995b, Table 17.ll 7, 425). This value, with a heat value of 79,500 million Btu, was used as a basis for estimated emissions from highway use of LPG. The State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, D13-14) provided the greenhouse and precursor gas emission factors displayed on Table 5.21 for passenger cazs and heavy duty vehicles with advanced emission controls and uncontrolled emissions. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-25 Table 8.21 Emiulons Factors for Highway LPG Uss Technology C CF14 Nr0 NO, CO NMVOC Passenger Car-Advanced Control 37'.8 0.022 WA 0.42 0.243 0.021 Passenger Car -Uncontrolled 37'.8 0.088 WA 0.84 3.204 1.414 Hsary Duty Vehicles - Advanced Control 37'.8 0.022 N/A 0.53 0.199 0.155 Heary Duty Vehicles -Uncontrolled 37'.8 0.088 N/A 0.796 3.359 1.127 (USEPA, 1995b. D73-14) Since the numbers, types, and control technologies of Hawaii's LPG highway vehicles were unknown, each set of the State Workbook greenhouse gas emissions factors was used to calculate total estimated emissions for each vehicle type and emission control technology pair. The results aze presented in Table 5.22. Table 5.22 Emlaslons from Highway LPG Use (Tons) Technology COZ CH, N=O NO, CO NMVOC Pussnger Car -Advanced Control 5,484 0.88 NIA 17 10 0.84 Passenger Car -Uncontrolled 5,464 2.63 NIA 33 128 56.31 Heary Duty Vehiela - Advanced Control 5,464 0.88 NIA 21 8 6.17 Heavy Duty Vehicles -Uncontrolled 5,464 2.63 NIA 32 i34 44.88 To estimate the greenhouse gas emissions from highway LPG use for inclusion in this inventory, the leverage of the four emissions values from Table 5.22 was calculated and usedl as the nominal value for estimated emissions as presented in Table 5.23. Table 5.23 Nomiinal Non-Highway LPG Vehicle Emissions In Hawaii, 1990 (Tons) CO= I;H, N=O NO, CO NMVOC 5,464 2 NIA 26 70 27 5.6 Emissions from Other Mobile Sources In addition to the transportation mobile sources discussed in the preceding sections of this chapter, there were greenhouse and precursor gas emissions from various types ofnon-highway vehicles and mobile equipment. The estimation of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-2fi these emissions is reported in this section. These emissions were attributed to the industrial sector in the final accounting of emissions by sector. Industrial sector non-highway vehicle emissions include agricultural, off-road construction, and other vehicles and equipment used in industrial operations. 5.6.1. Calculation of Emissions from Agricultural Sector Mobile Sources While Hawaii's agricultural sector includes pineapples, livestock, macadamia nuts, coffee; fruit, and other products, data were not available that detailed agriculturall equipment fuel used in producing those products. Detailed data on fuel used in vehicles in support of sugaz production were reported by the Hawaii Agricultured Reseazch Center (HSPA, 1991, 12). The greenhouse gas emissions produced by the remainder of the agricultural sector were estimated as part of the mobile source emissions from the overall industrial sector. Hawaii's sugaz industry used 221,976 barrels of diesel fuel, 29,166 barrels of gasoline, and 25 barrels of LPG for mechanical equipment and vehicles in 1990. Table 5.24 summarizes agricultural equipment fuel use. Table 5.24 Agricultural Equipment Fuel Uae, 1990 Fuel Barrols 10° Btu Percent Diesel 221,978 1,293,010 89.400% Gasoline 29,766 153,209 70.593% LPG 25 100 0.007% Total 7,446,319 100°h (HSPA, 11191, 72) The emissiions factors from the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b) for "farm equipment," cited below in Table 5.25, were used to calculate the emissions from agricultural equipment in the sugar industry. While the cazbon factor was differentiated by fuel type, the other emission factors provided were the same for all three filel types. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-27 Table 6.26 Emissions Factors for AgriculWral Equipment Fwl Use (LbsJMllllon BW) Fwl CO= CND N=0 Diesel 44.0 0.024 0.0044 Gasoline 42.8 0.024 0.0044 LPG 37.8 0.024 0.0044 Fuel NO, CO NMVOC Diesel 3.31 1.33 0.51 Gasoline 3.31 1.33 0.51 LPG 3.31 1.33 0.51 (USEPA, 1995b, D1-5 and D73-18) Using the general methodology, estimated greenhouse and precursor gas emissions from ag~acultural equipment use were calculated and were presented in Table 5.26. Table 5.28 Emissilons from Agricultural Equipment Fusl Use in Hawaii, 1990 (Tons) Fuel COz CH, NZO Diesel 103,260 75.52 2.84 Gasoline 11,902 1.84 0.34 LPG 7 0.00 0.00 Totals 115,168 17 3 Fuel NOR CO NMVOC Diesel 2,140 B60 330 Gasoline 254 102 39 LPG 0.2 0.1 0.0 Totals 2,394 962 369 5.6.2 Calculation of Emissions from Other Industrial Sector Mobile Sources Mobile equipment fuel uses outside sugar in the agricultural sector, in the construction industry, and in other industrial activities were estimated in the absence of specific data. This was accomplished by subtracting all other reported stationary and motile uses from the total amounts of distillate fuel and gasoline reported sold and distributed in Hawaii in 1990. This process resulted in an estimate of consumption of 185,702 barrels of diesel fuel and 5,050 ban•els of gasoline by mobile: equipment in the industrial sector, as presented on Table 5.27. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-28 Table 6.27 IndwMal Equlpment Fwl Use in Hanvali, 1990 F'wl Barrsls 10° Btu PercaM Diesel 185,702 1,081,714 98°~ Gasoline 5,005 26,291 2% Total 1,108,005 100% Souroe: Stale of Hawau, DBEDT Eatunate The emissions factors for "construction and industrial equipment" provided by the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, D1-5 and D13-16) and reproduced in Table 5.28 were used to calculate emissions. Table b.28 Emiulons Factors for Indwtrial EqulpmaM Fuel Use (Lbs.IMllllon Btu) Fuel C CH, N=0 Diesei 44.0 0.009 0.0044 Gasoline 42.8 0.009 0.0044 F'wl NO, CO NMVOC Diesel 2.65 0.84 0.20 Gasoline 2.65 0.84 0.20 (USEPA, 18a5b, 07-5 antl D13-18) Use of the standard State Workbook calculation methodology yielded the estimated emissions from industrial equipment as indicated on Table 5.29. Table 5.29 Emissions from Industrial Equipment Fuel Use In Hawail, 1980 (Tons) Puel CO= CHI N=0 Diesel 86,386 4.87 2.38 Gasoline 2,042 0.12 0.06 Tohl 88,428 5 2 Fuel NO, CO NMVOC Diesel 1,433 454 108 Gasoline 35 11 3 Total 1,468 465 111 5.6,3 Calculation of Emissions from Military Non-Aviation Mobile Source Fuel Use As noted iri the discussion of marine fuel use in Section 5.3, some portion of military purchases of 834,246 barrels of distillate fuel, 64,735 barrels of motor gasoline, alid 128,216 barrels of residual fuel oil in 1990 may have been used for ships or boats, but data were not available to determine actual use. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-29 For the purposes of this inventory, the maximum greenhouse and precursor gas emissions from military non-aviation fuel use were calculated and aze reported by possible uses. Distillate and gasoline use were calculated as emissions from military vehicles. Total distillate use was again calculated as emissions from military marine use as was marine use of residual fuel oil. Total military non- aviation mobile source emissions were reported based upon the highest emission values for each respective fuel use. Table 5.30 summarizes military non-aviation fuel purchases and depicts their heat value in millions of Btu. Table 6.30 Milaary Non-Aviation Fuel Purchases In Hawaii 7990 Fwl Bamis 10s Btu Percent Distillate 834,246 4,859,483 81% Gasoline 64,735 340,053 6°~ Residual 128,216 806,094 13% Total 6,005,630 100°k Source: State of Newell, DBEDT Estlmate 5.6.3.1 Fuel Use an Military Vehicles The military purchased 834,246 barrels of distillate fuel from Hawaii refiners and distributors in 19S>0. This fuel could have been used for tactical vehicles, off-road equipment, or ships in Hawaii or overseas. Some may have been used in stationary sources overseas. It was likely that most of the fuel was used in mobile sources, and that the mobile source emissions would have been greater than possible stationary source use except for NO„. In this section, greenhouse gas emissions were calculated as if all of the distillate was used in military vehicles. Most of the 64,735 barrels of motor gasoline were likely used in non-tactical vehicles and the emissions calculations were based upon that assumption. The emissions factors from the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, D1-5 and D13-16) for industrial equipment were used as a proxy for military off-road vehicles and tactical vehicles. These aze presented in Table 5.31. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-30 Tabls 8.31 Emiuions Factors for Industrial Equlpmant Fwl Uss (lbsJMilllon BW) Fwl C CH. N20 Distillate 44.0 0.009 0.0044 Gasoline 42.8 0.009 0.0044 Fwl NO, CO NMVOC Distillate 2.85 0.84 0.20 Gasoline 2.65 0.84 0.20 (USEPA, 'IaBSD, D1-5 antl 013-18) Using the general methodology, the estimate of greenhouse and precursor gas emissions from military vehicle use was calculated and is presented in Table 5.32. Table 5.32 Estimated Emissions from Military Vehicle Use of Fuel Purchusd in Hawa11, 19901Tons) Fusl CO= CH. N=0 Distillate 388,078 22 11 Gasoline 26,416 2 1 Total 414,494 23 11 Fuel NO, CO NMVOC Distillate 6,439 2,041 486 Gasoline 451 143 34 Total 6,889 2,184 520 5.6.3.2 Fuel Use in Military Ships At least some of the 834,246 barrels of distillate fuel purchased from Hawaii refiners and distributors in 1990 could have been for marine uses. In this section, the greenhouse gas emissions from the full amount of distillate fuel oil ptlrchases were calculated as if they had been used for marine purposes. Although :some of the 128,216 barrels of residual fuel oil purchased may have been used in stationary sources overseas, it will be assumed that the fuel was used in military ships. Table 5.33 presents the emissions factors from the Stare Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, DI-5 and D13-16) for distillate and residual fuel oil used as marine fuels. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-31 Table 6.13 Marina Fuel Emksiom Factors (Lbs./Million BW) Fuel C CH, N=0 Distillate 44 WA 0.002 Residual 47.4 N/A 0.002 Fwl NO, CO NMVOC Dktilkk 8.64 0.1 N/A Residual 6.64 0.1 N/A (USEPA, tBaSb, D7-5 end D73-78) The greenhouse and precursor gas emissions were calculated using the general methodology and are reported in Table 5.34. Table 6.94 Estlmatad Emiulons from Mllihry Mariw Use of Fusl Purchased in Hawaii, 1990 (Tons) Fusl COz CFi~ N=0 Distillate 388,078 WA 5 Residual 69,349 WA 1 Total 457,427 WA 6 Fwl NO. CO NMVOC Distillate 16,133 243 N/A Residual 2,676 40 N/A Total 18,810 283 N/A 5.6.3.3 Emissions from Non-Aviation Military Use of Fuel For the overall inventory, estimated emissions from military vehicles, and from marine uses were combined. Since most emissions from military vehicle use were greater than from marine uses, they were incorporated into the final inventory in Table 5.35 as part of a conservative approach. Table b.35 Estlmated Emissions from Military Mobile Source Use Use of Fwl Purchased in Hawaii, 7990 (Tons) Fusl COZ CH. Nz0 Distillate 388,079 22 11 Gasoline 26,416 2 1 Residual 69,349 WA 1 Total 483,843 24 13 Fuel NO, CO NMVOC Distillate 6,439 2,041 466 Gasoline 451 143 34 Residual 2,676 40 N/A Total 9,566 2,224 520 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-32 CHAPTER 6 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM NON-ENERGY SOURCES 6.1 Overview This chapU;r reports the inventory ofnon-energy anthropogenic sources of greenhouse; and precursor gas emissions which contribute to global warming. The non-energy' emissions sources include: • Industrial Processes • Oil Industry • Cement Industry • Municipal Waste Management • Municipal Solid Waste Management[ • Municipal Wastewater Treatment • Agricultural Activities • Domesticated Animals • Manure Management Systems • Agricultural Soil Management • Forest Management and Land-Use Change • Burning of Agricultural Crop Wastes The following sections present the summary of emissions from these non-energy activities. Chapter 7 reports the estimation of emissions from industrial processes. Chapter 8 details the calculation of emissions from municipal waste management. Chapter 9 explains the estimation of emissions from agricultural activities. 6.2 Summary of Hawaii Non-Energy Emissions Hawaii's greenhouse and precursor gas emissions from non-energy activities are 1 One element of municipal solid waste management on Oahu since 1990-was the City and County of Honolulu's H- POWER garbage-to-energy plant. While H-POWER's main purpose is to reduce landfill volume, it provides 45 MW of firm capaci~~ry to the Hawaiian Electric Company under a power purchase agreement and, in 1990, sold 312,479 MWh of electricity to the utility. H-POWER's greenhouse gas emissions were reported in the rnergy chapters of this report, but iu effect on reducing landfill volume is reported in this chapter. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 6-1 summarized on Table 6.1. These gases included CH„ COz, NzO, NOx, and CO. Table 6.1 Summary of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Non-Energy Sourees in Hawaii, 1990 (Tons) Activity CO= CH, Nz0 NO. CO Industrial Pro[:esses Oil 237 Cement 109,274 Municipal Solid Waste Management Landfill 147,098 53,490 Incinerator 42,586 27,101 Municipal Wastewater Treatment Treatment 1,027 Domestic Aoirnals 13,368 Manure Management 6,056 Sugarcane Burning 543 8 140 10,857 Fertilizer 196 Changes in Biomass Uptake -415,158 Abandoned Lainds Uptake _-519,237 Total -635,437 74,721 204 140 37,958 6.3 Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Non-Energy Sources Figure 6.1, on the following page, depicts the relative percentage of COZ emissions from non-energy sources in Hawaii in 1990. Landfills produced 147,098 tons of CO„ or 49% ofnon-energy COZ emissions. Cement production produced 109,274 tons, or 37%; and incineration of MSW produced another 42,586 tons, or 14°~0. While these amounts are significant, they were more than offset by the uptake of 934,395 tons from changes in biomass and abandoned lands. The net uptake of COz in the non-energy sector was 635,437 tons. Non-energy activities emitted 74,871 tons of CH, in 1990. As depicted in Figure 6.2, on the following page, 72% came from MSW management, pazticulazly landfills. Ruminanit domestic animals produced 18% with a further 8% produced by manure management systems. Wastewater treatment and sugazcane burning produced only 1.4°,io and 0.7% respectively. Transportation and production Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 6-2 activities in Hawaii's oil industry emitted only 0.3%. Figure 6.1 Carbon Dioxide Emlesions from Hawaii Non-Energy Sources, 1990 Incireretor 14% _ ix.:sr`::;c' -a e~ CemeMlndustry 37% i I t.enano 49% 6.4 Methane Emissions from Non-Energy Sources Figuna 6.2 Methane Emissions from Hawaii Non-Energy Sources, 1990 Sryercene Burning Harare 0.7% Ou Industry MarregemeM 0.3% 816 I~ illli Domestio Ardrnds ~ :~:,.~I~~II ,e% I. ~ i i ~ i dji. W'esteweter I ili lii;'~jHr~i''~~~!i is''°~ II; I II I I ~k!j:: Ili ~I I'liiillr 111 Treeimerd rri~i~ij~, i,l :~ji;,?iijl!;iiiisjili'j~li'I'~ 1 .4% I ~ I=.!~. Irv:. ;,::j; .I: I ~ I I I I ~ I i i. I; I „ ~:::.:U::jlgij~il!Iliiij I;II:. '!j~jl~~; ~ I, ~i ;;~I it IphiiiihjijiNlf jjjil I Ijiih~ilj ~ ill' I: I,,; I I I I'~li~ ili ~~li rlii~ ~ ~;i~ ~,,,ii . '~li'iii'ii::i: iii i a"a.i.i i!:.:.::....,. ',jllr;;~;jl~lil;!~j:i~N~;;;IljIifill~I~illill4 j. MSW Management III: .?,b: ~~iriji~iii r~j~ii'k:.: Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 6-3 6.5 Other Emissions from Non-Energy Sources NzO, NOx, and CO were also produced by non-energy sources. The emissions are reported in the following sections. 6.5.1 Nitrous Oxide A total of 204 torts of NZO were emitted by Hawaii non-energy sources in 1990. Fertilizer use produced 196 tons, or 96%, while sugarcane burning produced 8 tons, or 4%. 6.5.2 Oxides of Nitrogen Sugarcane burning also produced 140 tons of NO, in 1990. 6.5.3 Carbon Monoxide Figure 6.3 Carbon Monoxide Emissions from Hawaii Non-Energy Sources Sugarcane Burning 29% MSW Incineration 71% As Figure 6.3, above, shows 71 % of the CO from non-energy sources was produced by municipal solid waste incineration (27,101 tons), while the remaining 29% csune from sugaz cane burning (10,857). Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory B~ CHAPTER 7 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 7.1 Overvievu Hawaii's economy is primarily service-oriented with little major industry. In this section, emissions from the two major greenhouse gas emitting industries oil and cement are reported. The values reported here include emissions from industrial processes and do not include emissions from energy use in industrial sector for process heat or electricity generation. Emissions from process heat and electricity generation were reported in Chapters 3 and 4. 7.2 Summary of Emissions from Industrial Processes Table 7.1 ;summarizes estimated greenhouse gas production from industrial processes in Hawaii in 1990. The sources of these estimates aze summarized in the subsequent sections. Table 7.1 Estimated Grnenhouse Gas Emissions from Oil and Cement _ Industry Processes in Hawali, 1990 (Tons) Industry COz CH, Oil Transportation, Storage, and Distribution 156 Refining and Processing 81 _ Subtotal 237 Cement Clinker Production 109,005 Masonry Cement 269 Subtotal 109,274 Total 109,274 237 7.3 Emissions from Oil Refining and Utility Gas Industries Methane is the primary emission from oil and natural gas systems, although smaller quantities of NMVOCs, COz, and CO can be emitted. While CHa emissions occur throughout the total fuel cycles of oil and natural gas, Hawaii is involved in only the importing, refining, and distribution phases. Emissions occur in marine vessel operation, storage, refining, and from venting and flaring of gas (USEPA, 1995b, D3-1). Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 7-1 While the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, 3-1 - 3-3) provided a methodology for calculating CH,, emissions from natural gas processing, transportation, and distribution, there its no natural gas use in Hawaii. However, synthetic natural gas (SNG) and propane-air mixtures aze produced for use in utility gas systems. The emissions from this system were included in this report. Hawaii's non-utility gas needs are met with liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Emissions from the; combustion of these gases were reported in Chapters 3 through 5. LPG production emissions aze accounted for with other refinery processing in this ehapter. Leaks or venting o1F CH4 vapors can occur during tinkering. The amount of leakage is strongly dependent upon the original CH4 content of the crude oil and its prepazation for transport. Crude oil can emit CH4 from some types of storage tanks. During the refining process, CH4 may be leaked or vented in some processes. Most ol'such excess CH4 is Hazed, or burned, converting the emissions to COZ and other products of combustion. Refined products generally contain negligible amounts of CH4. Consequently, CH4 emissions aze not estimated for transporting and distributing refined products (LJSEPA, 1995b, D3-1). CH4 emissions for Haw;ui's refineries were calculated by each of Hawaii's refineries at DBEDT request. Refinery feedstocks are used to produce synthetic natural gas for use in the main Oahu gas system as utility gas. In the other utility gas service territories, i.e., outlying azeas of Oahu and the neighbor islands, propane vapor is the only form of gas distributed. The emissions from the utility gas systems were calculated at DBEDT request by BHP Gas Company. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 7-2 To preserve the requested co~dentiality of individual inputs, the data provided by the two refiners and the gas company are presented in aggregated form on Table 7.2. According to their reports, the two refineries and the utility gas system emitted a reported 237 tons of CH, from operations in Hawaii in 1990. Table 7.2 Reported Methane Emissions from Crude Oil and Synthetic Natural Gas TrensportaUon, Storage, Distribution, Refining, and _ Processing in Hawaii, 7990 Activity Pounds CH, Tons CH, Transportation, Storage, and DistdbuUon 311,721 156 Refining and Processing 162,138 81 Total 473,859 237 (Kusurw~ki, 1998; RobeM19, 1998) 7.3 Emissions from Cement Industry COZ is emitted during the production of cement. COZ is produced when calcium cazbonate (CaCO,) is heated in a cement kiln to form lime (calcium oxide or Ca0) and CO2. 7'he lime is then combined with silica-containing materials to form dicalcium or tricalcium silicates, two of the four major compounds in cement clinker. Tkris lime is combined with other materials to produce clinker, an intetmediat:e product from which finished portland and masonry cement aze made, while COZ :is released into the atmosphere. Assuming the average lime fraction of clinker is 64.6% yields an emission factor of 0.507 tons of C02 per tan of clinker produced. Masonry cement production requires additional lime and other materials, thus 0.0224 tons of additional COZ aze emitted for each ton of masonry cement produced (USEPA 1995b, D2-1, 2). Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 7-3 To create Table 7.3, the number of tons of clinker and masonry cement produced were obtained and multiplied by their respective emissions factors to yield the tons of COZ produced. A total of 109,274 tons of COZ was emitted from cement production in Hawaii in 1990. Table 7.3 CO=Emissions from Cemsnt Production In Hawaii, 1990 Activity Producton (Tons) Emission Factor' CO= (Tons) ClinkerProdudiim' 215,000 0.5070 109,005 Masonry Cement ~ 12,000 0.0224 269 Total 227,000 109,274 CissNk 1994 ~ Johnson, 1992 ' USEPA, 1995b, D&1 - D3-2) Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 7-4 CHAPTER 8 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 8.1 Overview This chapU;r reports the inventory of greenhouse gas emissions produced by municipal ;solid waste (MSW) management and wastewater treatment in Hawaii. Landfills are the lazgest single anthropogenic source of methane emissions in the United States (USEPA, 1993, 80). Although the decomposition of organic waste in landfills occurs in a mainly anaerobic (oxygen free) environment, this process results in the generation of both CH, and CO,. The two major factors that determine the quantity of gas produced are management practices and physical factors. Management practices include type of waste management system, density of refuse, and refuse particle size. Physical factors include waste composition, moisture content, and leachate pH (USEPA, 1995b, DS-1). As noted above, some MSW was incinerated on Oahu in 1990 and the COZ and CO emissions from incineration aze reported. Wastewater treatment can also contribute to methane generation and emissions. Wastewater can be treated aerobically and/or anaerobically and can degrade, untreated, via either mechanism (USEPA, 1995b, D12-1). Methane is generated under anaerobic conditions as the organic matter is degraded. 8.2 Summar)r of Emissions from Municipal Waste Management Municipal waste management activities in Hawaii in 1990 emitted 53,490 tons of CH„ 189,E~84 tons of COZ, and 27,101 tons of CO into the atmosphere. The calculation of these estimates is described in the sections which follow. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory B-1 Table 8.1 Greenhouse and Pmeursor Gas Emissions from Municipal Waste Management In HawaiI,1990 (Tons) Actlvlry CHI CO= CO Municipal Solid Wasta Landfill 53,490 147,098 Incineretor 42,586 27,101 Subtotal Municipal WastewaMrTreabnent Treatment 1,027 Municipal Wash Management Total 54,517 169,684 27,101 8.3 Emissions from Municipal Solid Waste Management Greenhouse gases were emitted from MSW management activities, including landfills, incineration of waste, and use of CH, from one landfill to generate electricity and flarung of CH, from three others. In addition, 495,000 tons of MSW was burned to produce energy. The emissions from non-energy production aspects of MS W management aze covered in this chapter. Emissions from energy production using M[SW were reported in Chapters 3 and 4. Greenhouse gas emissions were calculated using the methodology outlined in the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b), vvith some modifications based upon limited available local data. 8.3.1 Data Collection Data needed to calculate 1990 greenhouse gas emissions from landfills includes the total amount of waste in place (WIP) in the state, the fraction of waste in large versus small landfillls, the number of lazge landfills, average rainfall, and the quantity of landfill gas Hazed or recovered for energy purposes. Not all of this information was available, and what was available was obtained with some difficulty. Hawaii permitting regulations were revised in 1993 to require documentation of waste entering each landfill. As a result, accurate records for individual landfills aze available only since then (State of Hawaii, 1993). Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-2 As much data as possible were collected from personnel at county landfills (e.g., Rosetti, 1996) and from solid waste personnel in each county (e.g., Namlmart, 1996; Baker, 1996). Table 8.2 summarizes these reports and derived data. Table 8.2 Estlmated Hawaii Statewide Wash In Plan by Landoll, 1880 pyoww Volume of Years Of MSW per Corraetlon MS~P" MSWIP Lend1111 Name Clata Aeros Oparatlon Yon (Torn) Faetor (Yar14') (Tons) Hawall County Hilo Landfill Norndd 1970s-Present 56,314 87.2 756,860 Puu Anahulu 8 Kailas LFS Norndd 2018 1970s-Present 62,571 51.4 643,735 Maul County Central Landfill Add 1970.Present 152,833 58.2 3,226 1,778,063 Hans Landfill Nonadd 1965-Present 1,251 60.3 19.620 Olowalu 8 Makani LFs 2 x 15 Clwed late BOs 58.2 726,000 435,600 Lanai Lantllill Arid 1975-Present 2,190 75.4 26,420 Kalamaula Landfill Arid 19 Early 70s-1993 326,500 195,900 Honolulu County Kapaa Landfill Nonadd 133 1960s-Present xxx xxx xxx xxx Central SOe 33 1970.1979 82.1 4,168,867 2,500,000 Ske No.2 34 1982-Present 141,333 82.1 3,640,000 2,122,147 S9e No. 3 16 1979-1982 82.1 1,000,000 600,000 Two Oltl Landfills 40 1950s-1970s 82.1 580,800 348,480 One Old Constr. LF 10 1950s-1970s ~ 82.1 145,200 145,200 Kalaheo LF, Waimanab Nonadd 1987-1990 82.1 2.183,333 1,310,000 Waimanalo Gulch Landfill Nonedd 1989-Present 300,000 82.1 3,600,000 600,000 Kawailoa LF, Waialua Nonacid 28 1960s-1986 82.1 1,761,760 1,057,056 Puu Palailai LF, Makakilcl Add 29 19741988 7.5 4,600,000 2,800.000 Waianae Landfill Arid 20 1971-1984 74.5 774,400 1,400,000 Nanakuli Constr. LF Nonacid 1990.Presenl 200,000 82.1 200,000 200,000 Kauai Landfills Phase 1 Landfill Nornritl 1953-1995 82,571 69.0 763,886 458,332 Halehaka Landfill Nornrid Closed 69.0 363,000 217,800 Total MSWIYear 979,065 MSWIP Total (torn): 17,815,213 Numbers in add were mpaned, dtEer number aro estlntates or alcJaSans MSW=MuniripM SdxlWUile; MSWIP=MuddpalSdtd NhsWnAlaro • Except wham noted, ekes aro mnlpadetl. Assumes 0.6 tons per cubic YaN. Nd mrrylscmd. Auumsa 0.4 tons per wbic yard. Corutruc5on landfills assume 1 Eon per wbio yard Vdumw aro es5nuros WseO on 4810 a4wro ysrds/aw. k depMS aro unknwn, IandfiYS am assumed 3 yerda deep k operotlnp <t0 yaaro, 7 yams tleep k operodnp 10.15 yuro. and 10 yards daeD k operodn9 >i5 yuro. There was no system-wide method for estimating the amount of waste being landfilled at each site, and thus for estimating the amount of waste-in-place (WIP) at each. For example, some landfills recorded only the weight of incoming solid waste, but if the density of the landfill was not recorded as well, volume calculation becomes little more than guesswork. Furthermore, when relevant personnel were asked to estimate the density of solid waste in each landfill, the Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-3 answers varied over more than a degree of magnitude, bringing all answers into doubt. The available data were used to develop a preliminary estimate of WIP for each individual landfill. Although estimates of the annual amount of waste presently being landfilled were available for the majority of operating legal landfills, little or no such data were available for most of the closed landfills, some of which were sufficiently large to have a potentially significant impact on methane emission calculations. No data were available for illegal landfills for obvious reasons. For use in State Workbook calculations, this MS W tonnage ideally excludes waste from construction and demolition as well as materials destined for recycling. However, most data available in Hawaii combined construction and demolition waste with regular MSW (for example, Namunart, 1996; Steuteville, 1996). As a result, MSW data iincluded these two types of waste but excluded materials removed from the waste stream for recycling. This may have overstated the amount ofinethane-producing waste in Hawaii landfills. In Table 8.2, the volumes and tonnages reported by contacted personnel are shown in bold to distinguish them from those values which were calculated from the area and estimated depth of the landfill. Nevertheless, the 986,887 tons reported to have entered all Hawaii legal landfills in 1990 was essentially equivalent to the total annual tonnage which state officials reported as actually being landfilled (Steuteville, 1996; Hazder, 1996; Namunazt, 1996) when the 495,000 tons for b~azning in the H-POWER MSW-to-energy plant and 74,214 tons burned at the Waipahu Incinerator in 1990 aze taken into account. As a result of the uncertainty about the accuracy of the data reported above, it was decided to use the State Workbook method (USEPA, 1995b, 5-1 - 5-7) for data poor states, supplemented witlx available Hawaii data. Table 8.2 was thus used only to Hawaii Greenhouse Gas inventory 8~ establish the number of large landfills (over one million tons) for use in estimating waste-in-place when using the State Workbook method. 8.3.2 Estimation of Waste-in-Place (WIP) The EPA model for WIP calculation uses data compiled from 851andfills nationwide; (DS-4). It accounts for the fact that methane is released from solid waste for cip to 30 years, rather than assuming that the total potential methane production. is realized shortly after landfilling. The basic imethod required only de facto population numbers and the average waste generation rate per capita, supplemented with available data to refine the estimate. 8.3.3 WIP Calculation Equation 81.1 is suggested by the EPA to determine VJIP (5-2). W][P = 30 x P x WGR x L x GCF (Equation 8.1) 2000 Where: WIP =waste in place (tons) over the past 30 yeazs; P = de facto population for a given yeaz WGR =per capita waste generation rate L =percent landfilled, expressed as a fraction (e.g., 1.0 =100%) GCF =growth correction factor 2000 =conversion factor for ]bs. to tons The solution of Equation 8.1 required only the de facto population trend over the last several yeazs, plus the average per capita waste generation over a period of yeazs. Population figures were obtained from the Hawaii State Data Book editions off 1976, 1985, and 1995 (State of Hawaii, 1976, Table 3, 11; 1985, Table 4, 15; 1995b, Table 1.04, 15). P, or the 1990 de facto population, was 1,257,000 (State of Hawaii, 1995b, Table 1.04, 15). The WGR, or waste generation rate, was not a'. easily obtained. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-5 Data on MS W generation per year were only available for Oahu for the yeazs since 1980. The mean waste generation rate over the period 1980-1990 was 1,588 pounds per capita per year (State of Hawaii, 1991, Table 147, 147). Table 8.3, on the following page, displays the data used in calculation of the WGR. Table 8.3 Calculation of Average Waste Generation Rats Oahu Waste' Tons per LW per Year Population' (tons) Capita Capita 198iD 823,400 813,549 0.745 1,490 1981 824,700 714,017 0.868 1,732 1982 837,800 685,276 0.794 1,589 1983 848,300 826,835 0.741 1,481 1984 852,300 611,386 0.717 1,435 1985 854,800 815,574 0.720 1,440 1986 871,000 681,874 0.783 1,586 1987 881,000 678,392 0.770 1,540 1988 888,200 739,820 0.833 1,666 1988 905,900 778,673 0.860 1,719 199D 912,100 825,058 0.905 1,809 Average Lbs. per Capita 1,888 ' State of HaMnii, 1BBSb ' state a Haami, ~ ast Waste generation data for Hawaii's three other counties were not available. Oahu, however, accounted for over 73% of Hawaii's de facto population in 1990 and over 75% of its resident population (State of Hawaii, 1995b, Table 1.07, 18). For the purpose of thi<.~ study, the average waste generation rate from Table 8.3 is assumed to be the same for all counties. This may under-estimate the actual rate, as tourists reportedly generate more waste per capita than residents, and tourists represent a lazger percentage of the de facto population on the neighbor islands than on Oahu (Na:munart, 1996). Thus, the MSW generation rate used should be taken as a minimuurt estimate for the state. The State Workbook default value for L, or percentage landfilled, was 70%, or 0.7 (USEPA, 1995b, :i-2). However, since the waste generation reported for Oahu did not include materials recycled, it was assumed that all of the waste was either landfilled or burned. Accordingly, the value for L used in this calculation was Hawaii Greenhouae Gas Inventory 8-6 100%, or I..O, as the amount burned was calculated sepazately and subtracted from the solution of Equation 8.1. The amount of waste landfilled each year has grown significantly over the past thirty yeazs. If the current, or even the past 11 year average was used to calculate the waste in place over the past thirty years that U.S. landfill waste typically produces methane, the amount would be overstated. Accordingly, a GCF, or growth correction factor was applied. Considering the average de facto thirty- yeaz annual population growth rate of 2.22%, a GFC of 0.734 was applied, based upon Table 5.1 in the State Workbook (5-3). r•a• a.a. E•fim•1• o/wralnxM•n m x...n lanC8n.,1no phu pF•eEO T•bl CM•M7.4 u8P •n OYw Amw• dfrro Pp,i••en erw TYIP an BM•n UrB hr 8tM•wIM P•pWYbn ax.l9heor pFrm NM91b•r V. ein4lq HP019E8 BumM WIw WIP WIP Twr N9r 1) bl.n4• P•gxdlan Ran•) R•rl R•rl R•r12 R•r13 R•rl IB80-1880 823,x00 232.000 1,055,400 2,592,053 10,418,320 - 2,033,571 8,382,749 10974,802 N•t WIP •n Oahu In 1N0: 0.382.7x9 7981 82x.700 237,9(10 1,061,581 2,798.024 8,098,786 - i%.428 8,810,337 11,738,362 1962 837,800 247,000 1,088,582 2.991,208 8.605,813 - 156.x29 9,M9,765 12,M3.393 1963 618,300 262,900 1,111,163 3,188,832 10,078,020 - 158,x29 9,919,591 13,108,523 1984 852,300 278,200 1,132.x84 3,388.495 70,530,977 - 156,x29 10,371,549 13.783,013 1885 851.800 283,000 1,139,785 3.592.294 10,990,123 - 156A29 10,833,694 11.425,988 1886 871,000 296.500 1,789.x88 3,824,413 11,515.588 - 156,129 11,358,139 15.i 83.552 1987 881,000 305,500 1,188,487 x,089,856 12.037,531 - 156,129 11,881,103 15,940.758 1988 888.200 312,200 1,202,380 q,319,700 12,820,923 - 158p29 12,181,194 16,784.195 1989 905,900 339,700 1,247,588 4,611,892 13,243,187 - 166,429 13.086.739 17.698A31 1990 912,100 3H,900 1,257,000 4,923,878 13,911,797 195,000 78,211 13.338,582 18.262,261 PopJ.ewi wnbn NBU mwr M18B0 ' N„utl W4Ip•Ixi Imyunly b1.1.p. CIW441.1 romp 800 TI•ry, 54fyirk uNl 19Y0, 9.11309 TM4y ' C.Ia441M 5Y u<tr•eGq tlr am of YI 1CIn4944 MnIM h P•~Iau M. •1Yd1 N 114191 Y•o IrkrY. Since data waste generation data were not available prior to 1980, the average waste generation rate for 1980 - 1990 was used in Equation 8.1 to calculate WIP in 1980. The results are shown in the first line of Table 8.4. The value for Oahu was reduced by a nominal 156,429 tons per year to account for waste burned at the Waipaltu Incinerator between 1967 and 1980. To calculate the WIP for 1980 to 1990, the annual waste generation rate was used in each yeaz. Oahu WIP was reduced by the nominal 156,429 tons burned in the Waipahu Incinerator through 1989 and, the 78,214 tons burned in 1990. An additiona1495,000 tons were subtracted to account for the amount burned in the H-POWER plant in 1990 (Yuen, 1996), its first yeaz of operation. The resulting estimate of total waste-in- place in 15190 was 18,262,261 tons. This result is only 3.6% more than the WIP of Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-7 17,615,213 tons estimated from available land fill data. For the purposes of estimation of methane emissions, the higher value will be used. 8.3.4 Estimating W/P in Large and Small LandFlls The next step in the process was to determine the fraction of waste in lazge and small landfills for use in calculating methane emissions from each type. The fraction is important because methane generation rates aze different due to a variety of factors related to landfill size, including waste composition, waste age, and ease of moisture movement within the landfill. For this study, the EPA defined a large landfill as one containing more than 1.1 million tons of WIP. Available data on landfill size indicated there were seven lazge landfills in 1990, including four which had been closed. Based upon the data reported by Hawaii landfill managers, these held about 63.5% of reported WIP. Although based upon incomplete reporting, it is believed that the reported fraction of large landfills is more accurate than the default value (86%) provided by the State Workbook (5-4). The Hawaii estimate was used in the subsequent equations to calculate total CH, emissions. 8.3.5 Calculation of Methane Emissions from Landfills Calculation of methane emissions from landfills also required determination of the overall climate of the landfills (that is, and or nonacid) for large landfills, yet not for small landfills (iJ.S. EPA, 1995). CF„ the conversion factor for tons of waste to cubic foot per day of CH, for non-and azeas was used as most landfills in Hawaii are in non-arid areas. Since the assumed seven lazge landfills in Hawaii were estimated to contain about 62% of the reported total V?IP (18,262,261 tons), as discussed above, these values were used in calculating emissions. Thus, 11,596,536 tons of waste were considered to be in lazge landfills while 6,665,725 tons were in small landfills. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory S-8 The first equation, Equation 8.2, calculates M,,, the amount of methane produced from lazge landfills in tons per yeaz, within a range of plus or minus 15%. M,, = N a [419,000 + (CF, z WIP,,/1~] a CFZ (Equation 8.2) Where: M,, =methane from lazge landfills (tons/yr.) ± 15% N =number of lazge landfills in the state 419,000 =constant recommended in the State Workbook (5-6) CF, =conversion factor for tons of waste to ft /day methane (0.26 in non-arid areas) WIP,, =waste in place in all large landfills statewide (tons) CFz =conversion factor from ft'/day to tons/yr. methane (0.0077) Similazly, the second equation, Equation 8.3, calculates M„ the amount of methane produced from small landfills in tons per yeaz within a range of plus or minus 20°~0. M;; = WIPS z CF, a CF, (Equation 8.3) Where: MS =methane from small landfills (tons/yr.) t 20% WIPs =waste in place in all small landfills statewide (tons) CF, =conversion factor for tons of waste to ft'/day methane (0.35 in non-arid areas) CF, =conversion factor for ft'/day to tons/yr. methane (0.0077) The solution of Equation 8.2 resulted in an estimate of 45,800 tons of methane produced from lazge landfills 20%) and Equation 8.3's solution was 17,964 tons of methane from small landfills 15%). The sum of the results of the two equations was 63,764 tons. 8.3.6 Aldjustments for Use, Flaring, and Oxidation of Landfill A~ethane Not all of the estimated 63,764 tons of CH, produced by Hawaii's landfills was emitted into the atmosphere. An estimated 10% was oxidized in the soil of the Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-9 landfills. Some CH, was used to generate electricity at the Kapaa Generating Partners Plant at the Kapaa Landfill in Kailua, Oahu; and some was flared, or burned, at other landfills. While flaring produced COZ, the resulting CO2 had less negative effect them if the methane was emitted. In this section, the calculation of these adjustments will be reported. First, an adjustment was made for the oxidation of methane within the soil layer overlaying the landfilled material. Based upon discussion in the State Workbook (USEPA, 1995b, :i-8), it was assumed that 10% of generated methane less the amount used to generate electricity and the amount flared was oxidized by this soil layer. This voilue was calculated to be 6,376 tons in 1990. The amount of CFIa used to produce energy at Kapaa in 1990 was not available. However, available information from the operator indicated that 8,912 MWh electricity were produced (State of Hawaii, 1997). By extrapolating available data on CH, used to generate electricity from 1994 and 1996, it was estimated that 2,827 tons of CH, were used. Three other Hawaii landfills flared the methane produced -the Olowalu and Makani Landfills on Maui (435,600 tons WIP), and the Halehaka Landfill on Kauai (217,800 tons WIP). These landfills, which are closed, contained 653,400 tons WIF'. By using Equation 8.3, it was estimated that these three landfills produced 1,760 tons of CH, in 1990. According to the EPA, a 70 to 80% collection efficiency is generally reported for well-designed and well-operated landfill gas collection systems (LTSEPA, 1995b). Since collection efficiency data were not available on the three landfills cited above, a 75% collection efficiency was assumed following EPA practice (USEPA, 1993). As a result of flaring, approximately 75% of emitted CH„ or 1,320 tons, was converted to COZ in 1990. Table 8.5 summarizes the adjustments for oxidation, use, and flaring of landfill methane. The final result is an estimate of 53,490 tons of methane emitted to the atmosphere from Hawaii's landfills in 1990. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 5-10 Table 8.5 Adjustments for Use and Flaring of Landfill Methane, 1990 (Tons) Estimate of Methane Produced 63,764 Oxidized 6,376 Used to Generate Electricity 2,578 Flared 1,320 Methane Emitted to Atmosphere 53,490 8.3.7 Calculation of Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Landfills According 'to several sources (e.g., Fazquhaz and Rovers, 1973; Emcon Associates, 1980; State of Wisconsin, 1993), the volume of gas emitted from an average landfill stabilizes at about 50% CH, and 50% C02 after a period of a few months. An equal volume of the two gases under identical conditions will differ in weight according to their relative molecular weights. Thus, since the weight of methane emitted from landfills in Hawaii was calculated as reported above, the weight of an equivalent volume of COZ can be estimated by using the following Equation 8.4. ~'co: = Wcx~ x CF (Equation 8.4) Where: Wco: =weight of emitted COZ in tons Wcxd =weight of emitted CH, in tons CF =difference in moleculaz weights = 44/16. The solution of Equation 8.4 for Hawaii was an estimate of 147,098 tons of COZ emitted directly from landfills in 1990. COZ emissions due to the flaring of methane were calculated using Equation 8.4, but by substituting the weight of the methane burned for Wcxa• The result of this calculation produced an estimate that 3,630 tons of COZ were emitted by flaring. In addition., 78,214 tons of refuse were burned at the Waipahu Incinerator in 1990. Since about 50% of wood consists of cazbon, the cazbon content of MSW burned at this facility would be somewhat less than 50%. If one assumes that (1) 30% of the weight of this refuse consisted of cazbon, (2) only about 1 % of this cazbon was Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-11 retained as ash, and (3) half of this emitted carbon was converted to COz and half to CO, the necessary equations to calculate these emissions from the Waipahu Incinerator are as follows: ~'co: _ ~~'fMSw x %C) - %A x CF,)/2 (Equation 8.5) ~'I'co: =Weight of emitted COz in tons ~'~'msw = Weight of municipal solid waste entering incinerator, in tons %C =percent of MS W consisting of cazbon, expressed as a fraction %A =percent of cazbon left behind as ash 2 =conversion factor accounting for half of emitted gas volume consisting of COZ CF, =difference in moleculaz weights between COZ and C = 44/12; and ~'I'co = ~~/msw x %C) - %A x CFZ)/2 (Equation 8.6.) Where: Wco =weight of emitted CO in tons WM~, = weight of municipal solid waste entering incinerator, in tons %C =percent of MSW consisting of cazbon, expressed as a fraction %A =percent of cazbon left behind as ash 2 =conversion factor accounting for half of emitted volume consisting of CO CF, =difference in moleculaz weights between CO and C = 28/12; Based upon the solution of these equations, it was estimated that the incinerator emitted about 42,_i86 tons of COz and 27,101 tons of CO in 1990. CO2 and CO were also produced when CH, was burned for power at the Kapaa landfill generator ;and when refuse was burned for power at the H-POWER Plant Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-12 (Jones, 1996). Since the Kapaa and H-POWER plants are energy sources, their emissions were discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. 8.3.8 Total Emissions from Municipal Solid Waste Management Table 8.6 stunmarizes the estimate of greenhouse and precursor gas emissions from MSW management in Hawaii in 1990. Tabls 8.8 Emissions }rom Munielpal Solid Waste Management In Hawaii, 1990 (Tons) AetivHy CH, CO= CO Municipal 3olld Waste Landfill 53,490 147,098 Incinerator 42,586 27,101 Muniolpal Solid Waste ManapemsM Total 53,490 789,684 27,701 8.3 Emissions from Municipal Wastewater Treatment To determine the methane emissions from municipal wastewater, the following data were obtained: • Pounds of BOD, per capita (0.13561bs./capita/day) were obtained from State Department of Health personnel. BOD is the organic loading or biochemical oxygen demand, a measure of the oxygen required by microorganisms to degrade the organic matter in the waste stream. Therefore, a waste stream with a high BOD will generate more methane than one with a lower BOD. BOD, refers to a 5-day BOD test (USEPA, 1995b, D12-1); • De facto state population for 1990 of 1,257,000 from The State of Hawaii Data Book, 1995 (Table 1.07, 18); and • Fraction of wastewater treated anaerobically (The default value of 15% (USEPA, 1995b, 12-2) was used as the exact fraction was not available). Hawaii Greenhouse Gaa Inventory 8-13 Although Hawaii's counties keep track of the voltune of wastewater produced annually and the volume treated, the State Workbook unfortunately did not provide a way to use those figures in calculating methane emissions. Further, many residents are not connected to the municipal sewage treatment plants and instead have a cesspool or septic tank, which also generate methane. Accurate records on the number of cesspools and septic tanks were unavailable, thus the default value listed in the State Workbook (12-1) was used. The following equation was used to determine methane emissions from municipal wastewater treatment in accordance with models developed by the EPA and recommended in the State Workbook: E, _ ~P x B z 365 x EF x A%) - MR (Equation 8.7) 2000 Where: E, =methane emissions for yeaz "y" (tons) B = BOD, generation rate (0.1356 lbs./capita day) P = de facto population (1,257,000 in 1990) 365 =conversion factor (days/yeaz) EF =emissions factor (tbs. CH, / LB BOD,) = 0.22 A% =percentage of wastewater treated anaerobically, expressed as a fraction (default = 0.15) 2000 =conversion factor (tbs./ton) MR =methane recovered (tons) (none in 1990) Using Equation 8.'7, an estimate of 1,027 tons of methane emissions from municipal wastewatter treatment in Hawaii in 1990 was calculated. The values used in the calculation aze shown in Table 8.7. Table 8.7 Caleulatlon of Methane Emissions from Munioipal Wastewater Treatment in Newell, 1990 Data Value Defado Population (x 1000 parsons) 1,267 BOD generated (IlosPoay) 170,449 Quantity of BOD anaerobiwlly treated (Ibstyr) 9,332,094 Methane Emissions (Ibstyr) 2,063,061 Methane Emissions (tonslyr) 1,027 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-14 It should be fairly easy to continue monitoring methane emissions from wastewater treatment. It is recommended that state or county staff develop a mechanism to accurately include contributions from septic tanks and cesspools and deternnine accurate percentages for BOD, generation and fraction of wastewater treated anaerobically. Such data would provide a better picture of methane emissions from wastewater treatment. These data would also aid any future state decisions about development of additional wastewater treatment systems and/or upgrading of existing facilities to reduce such emissions. Sewage treatment also emits N20 and CO2; however, emission rates for these gases aze tmcertain (USEPA, 1995b), and are not included here. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-15 CHAPTER 9 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES 9.1 Overvieuv This chapter reports the inventory of greenhouse and precursor gas emissions produced lby agricultural activities in Hawaii. These include emissions from domesticated animals, manure management, agricultural soil management, and burning o1'agricultural crop waste. 9.2 Emissions from Agricultural Activities The estimated anthropogetric non-energy greenhouse and precursor gas emissions from agricultural activities in Hawaii in 1990 are summarized in Table 9.1. Table 9.1 Estimated Anthropogenic Non- nergy Emissions from awa i Agrlculture,1890 COQ Emissloro or Cll. Emilbd N=O Emitted CO Emated NOx Emittsd Land Uts Uptake (Toro COz) (Tons CFI) (Tons Nz0) (Tons CO) (Tons NOx) Domsstlc Anlmab 13,388 Manus Maropamenl: 8,056 Suparearo suming 543 8 10,857 140 FsrtllMr 196 Changes In Biomass -415,158 AWndonsd Lands -519,237 Total -934,395 18,867 204 10,857 140 CH„ CO, and NCO emissions in 1990 were all positive. However, C02 emissions were a ne~~ative 934,395 tons per year due to uptake by growing plants. The following sections describe the calculation of these values. 9.3 Emissions from Domesticated Animals This section covers calculations to determine methane emissions from domesticated animals. Two classes of azrimals aze covered here. Ruminants, the first class of animals, produce comparatively greater amounts of methane emissions due to fermentation in their "fore-stomachs." Common ruminants found in Hawaii aze cattle, goats, and sheep. The second class, non-ruminants, also produce methane but in faz less volume on a per animal basis than ruminants. Non-ruminants include pigs and horses (USEPA, 1995b, 6-1). Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-1 To determine methane emissions, calculations were performed following the models developed by the EPA and listed in the State Workbook (6-1 - 6-4). Emissions from cattle, sheep, and pigs were quantified for Hawaii. Population data were not available on goats and horses. Cattle were divided into several subcategories, each, with distinct emissions factors. Sheep and pigs were not divided into further categories. The following equation was used to determine methane emissions: M, = P, x E;f„ (Equation 9.1) Where: ]VI, =Methane emissions for domesticated animal type "a" (tons/yr.) ]P, =Population of domesticated animal type "a" (head) ]Ef,~ = Methane emissions factor for domesticated animal type "a" (lbs. CHa/head/yr.) for geographic region "r" (r =West) As seen in Equation 9.1, emissions factors aze region-specific In the case of Hawaii, the "West" region emissions factors were used as recommended by the State Workbook (6-•4). Domesticated atum~al population data were required to determine emissions, as seen in Equation 9.1. All animal population data were obtained from the Statistics of Hawaiian Agriculture 1993 (State of Hawaii, 1994a). Cattle subcategories in Statistics of Hawaiian Agriculture 1993 (80) did not correspond directly to those developed by the EPA; however, subcategories were assigned which sought to match the EPA nornenclature as closely as possible. Table 9.2 displays these subcategories for cattle. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-2 Table 9.2 Cattle Subcategories for Determination of Methane Emissions Categories Suggested by EPAt Deflnl0ons Used in This Report= Dairy Cattle Mature Cows Milk cows that have calved Replacements 12-24 months Heifers 500 pounds and over ("other? - proreted based on mature dairy cow iredion of total mature dairy and beef cows Repla~~ments 0-12 months Not used Beef Cattle Mature Cows Beef cows that have calved Repla~rerttertts 12-24 months Heifers 500 pounds and over ("other) - pronted based tJn mature beef cow fraction of total mature dairy and beef cows Repla~xments 0-12 months Not used Yearling Steen end Heifer Steers 500 Ibs and over Wsanling Suers and Heifers Steers, heifers, and bulls under 500 Ibs Bulls Bulls 500 Ibs and over ' USEPA, 1 YBSb, Tubb De-2, DBJ ~ State of H~ewafl, tiWb, 80, Using Equation 9.1, methane emissions were calculated for each animal type and subtype. Cattle were the primary source of methane emissions from domesticated animals. i\Qethane emissions for domesticated animals are displayed in Table 9.3. Table 9.3 Methane Emissions from Domestic Animals In Hawaii, 1990 CH4 Emission 1980 Population Factor CH4 Emissions Animal Type (Head) (Ibs. CH4lttesd) (Tons) Dairy Cattle Mature G~xrs 11,000 262.5 1,444 Replacerttents 12-24 months 8,174 t34.6 550 Beef Cattle Mature Cows 75,000 152.0 5,700 Replacerttents 12-24 months 30,826 142.7 2,199 Yearling Steen and Heifers 26,000 104.7 1,361 Wsanling Steen and Heifer 49,000 51.7 1,267 Bulls 5,000 220 550 Other Domestic Animals Sheep 27,000 17.6 238 Swine 38,000 3.3 59 Total 268,000 13,368 ' PopubDOn tlata baeatl on January 1, t BBO inventory (State of Hawaii, 1984D, e0) ~ USEPA, 1 ~DBSD, Tale D&2, D63 9.4 Emissions from Manure Management In manure management systems, methane is produced by the anaerobic decomposiition of organic matter. The key factor in deterntining the extent to Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-3 which this process occurs is the type of manure management system employed. Types of systems included in the State Workbook (7-1) are pastures, deep pits, liquid slurry, and anaerobic lagoons. Typically, less methane is produced when manure is placed onto pasture and/or range lands, since degradation in these cases occurs aerobically (7-1). All emissions were calculated by animal type and manure management system. For Hawaii, data were available to allow calculation of emissions from manure management systems for cattle, sheep, pigs, and chickens. Manure management systems produced 6,056 tons of methane emissions in Hawaii in 1990. Table 9.4 summarizes the results. table 9.4 Methane Emissions from Manure Management Syatems in Hawali, 1880 Animal Type Methane (Tons) Cattle 3,514 Chickens 1,427 Sheerp 14 Swine 1,101 Total 6,056 The following steps were used to calculate methane emissions from manure management systems: • Collection of data on animal populations these data were found in the Statistics of Hawaiian Agriculture 1993 (80-94); • Determination of the amount of volatile solids (VS) produced by each animal type; • Use of the appropriate methane conversion factor and other pazameters to estimate the amount of methane emissions from each manure management system and animal type; and • Conversion of all units to tons of methane and summation of emissions over alll manure management types (USEPA, 1995b, (7-1 - 7-4). Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory gat Two equations were used in these calculations. The first of these, Equation 9.2, was used to calculate pounds of volatile solids produced by each animal type. VS; produced per animal type =Animal population (head) x TAM; x vs; (Equation 9.2) Where: VS, =Total VS produced (Ibs./yr.) for animal type i TAM; =Typical animal mass for animal type I (Ibs./head) vs; =Average annual volatile solids production per unit of animal mass of animal type i (VS per pound of animal mass) (7-3) The values for total animal mass (TAM) and average annual volatile solids (vs) used to calculate total volatile solids (VS) produced by each animal type and the amounts produced aze shown in the top rows of Tables 9-5 and 9-6. The solution of Equation 9.2, total amount of volatile solids, and additional data were then used in Equation 9.3 to calculate total methane emissions. CH,, emissions for animal; on systems _ VS; x B; x MCF~ x WS%;; x 0.0413 / 2000 (Equation 9.3) Where: VS; =Total VS produced (Ibs./yr.) for animal type i B; =Maximum methane producing capacity per pound of VS for animal type i (ft'Abs. VS) MCF~ =Methane conversion factor for each manure system j WS%U= Percent of animal type is manure managed in manure system j 0.413 =density of methane (lbs./ft') conversion factor to pounds 2000 =pounds/ton With the er:ception of MCF; ,all other Hawaii-specific pazameters were available from tables in the State Workbook (7-2, 7-5 - 7-14). Based upon the Workbook discussion of the temperature dependence of MCF; (D7-3), it was concluded that values provided for Florida would be most appropriate to represent Hawaii. As in Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-5 the process of calculating methane emissions from domesticated animals, subcategories for cattle were assigned. These subcategories were the same as those in Table 9.2. The calculation of methane emissions from cattle manure management systems in Hawaii is presented in Table 9.5. Tsbb 9.8 MetMne Emiselop Pro aced by Mpuro 9ASnapsmpt Sysbme In Hawell, 1 0 Wiry WIIN Bpf CstW Repbes- aeplsee• Msturo Cap meMS MsWro Cows msnb YpAings Wpnllnps Bulb Popubtlon 11,000 8,774 75,000 30,828 28,000 49,000 5,000 TAM `ryplul m1111e1 mpe pbtJlhpd~ Ppluro 1,345 903 1,102 794 794 397 1,597 Dryly 915 915 w (1/SAb.)r 3.6'.5 3.85 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.8 V8 QWJyr.) 54,001,750 28,941,095 214,890,000 439,520 370,711 50,577,800 20,781,000 Br` mexlmum methsp protluelnp tepplly psr pound of VS }or anlmsl type (1t IVa) 3.84 3.&1 2.72 2.72 2.72 2.72 2.72 MCF ~ Methpe Conwrolon Fatbr ~ Anseroble Lspoon 0.900 O.B00 - - - - _ LlqultllSlurty7Pk 0.368 0.386 - - - - _ WIty SProetl 0.008 0.008 - - _ _ _ SoIIdlDryla 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 PasWrolRanpe 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 O.OtS 0.015 0.015 OIMr 0.100 0.100 WS% ` Penront of sn1111s1 lyp.y msnuro mensped In menuro eysam ° Anproble Lspoon 0.31 0.31 - - - _ Llquld/Slurry/Pk 0.57 0.57 - - _ _ Wlty Sproetl 0.66 0.06 - - - _ _ So11d/Drylot - - 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 PpturolRanps 0.66 0.06 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 0.90 Other 0.66 0.100 Conwrolon Factor. h CHI to Ib•. CHI 0.0413 CH4ITOns) Anprobk Lagoon 1,195 598 - - - - _ Llquld/Slurry/Pk 942 470 - - - - _ Wlty Sprosd 2 1 SoIIdlDrylot - - 29 0.06 0.05 7 3 Ppturo/Renpe 4 2 163 0.33 0.28 38 16 Other 213 21 TOTAL CHI (Tons) 2,186 1,090 192 0.4 0.3 45 19 TOTAL CHI (Tons) from Csttb 3,614 Shh °rFNweA, 18910, e0 1 USEPA, 1995b, Tebb 7.10, 7.2 ~ USEPA, 199SD, Tebb 7-11, 7-12 ~ USEPA, /995D, Tebb 7-12, 7.73 ° USEPA, 1995b; Tebbs 7-1, 7-2, 7-13; 7-0i, 7~8, 7-14 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-6 Table 9.6 shows the calculation of methane emissions produced by layer and broiler chickens, sheep, and breeder and market swine. Table 9.8. Methane Emissloro Produced by Chicken, Sheep, and Swine Manuro Management Systems In Hawail, 1890 Chickens Other Breeder Market Layers Brolbre SMep Swirre Swine Populatlon 974,000 1,940,000 27,000 6,000 30,000 TAM ~ Typical animal mesa (IbsJhesd)` 4 2 154 399 101 vs (VS/lb.)r 4.40 6.20 3.4 3.1 3.1 VS (IbsJyr.) 14,999,600 18,042,000 13,970,880 7,421,400 9,393,000 Bo ~ marcimum methane producing ppacily per pound of VS for animal type (ft NS)~ 5.45 4.57 3.04 5.77 7.53 MCF ~ Methane Convention Factor ~ Anaerobic Lagoon 0.900 - - 0.90 0.90 Pk <1 mo. - - - 0.79 0.19 Pit>1 mo. 0.193 - - 0.39 0.39 SolidlDrylot - - - 0.02 0.02 Later - 0.015 0.015 - - Other 0.100 - 0.0 0.10 0.10 NB% ~ Percent of animal type's manure managed In manure system ` Anssroble Lagoon 0.80 - - 0.32 0.32 Pit <1 mo. - - - 0.17 0.17 Pit>7 mo. 0.10 - - 0.36 0.36 9oI1d/Drylot - - - 0.07 0.07 Lk[er - 1.00 0.92 - - OtMr 0.90 - 0.08 0.080 0.080 Conwrelon Factor: tt CH. to Ibs. CH. 0.0413 CH. (Tons) Anaerobic Lagoon 1,215 - - 255 421 LlquIdlSluny/Plt - - - 29 46 Daily Spread 33 - - 123 203 So11dlDrylot - - - 7 2 Lktsr - 27 12 - - Other 152 - 2 7 12 TOTAL CH. (Toro) 1,400 27 14 415 686 'State o/Haws!!, fee46, 80 ~ USEPA, 1985b, Table 7-10, 7.2 ~ USEPA, 1995b, Table 7-11, 7-12 ~ USEPA, 1995b, Tads 7-12, 7-13 USEPA, 1995b; Tades 7.1, 7-2, 7-13; 7-5, 7-8, 7-14 Population data on horses, donkeys, mules, and goats were not available. However, lack of such data did not significantly affect emissions results. Manure from those particulaz animals would most likely be found in pastures or similazly Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-7 dispersed, and thin manure management would involve aerobic rather than anaerobic conditions, which reduces the amount of methane produced. It is also important to note that although poultry is included here, detailed data were only available for laying chickens. Data on the number of broiler chickens were not available, but the number sold in 1990 - 1,940,000 -was provided in Statistics ofHawcrii Agriculture 1993 (94) and was used as a proxy. More detailed information on broiler chickens is expected to be difficult to obtain in the future due to the <:ompetitive concerns of the few broiler producers in Hawaii. 9.5 Emissions from Agricultural Soil Management Greenhouse gas emissions can also result from various agricultural soil management practices. Emissions of NrO, for example, which occur naturally in soils, can be increased by the application of nitrogen-bearing synthetic and organic fertilizers. Soils are both sources and sinks for COZ and CO, sources of N2O, and sinks fon CH,. Fluxes of such gases can be affected by tillage practices, irrigation, and the non-use, or fallowing, of fields. The State Workbook (LJSEPA, 1995b) methodology endeavors to quantify emissions based on fertilizer use only, since much uncertainty remains about the other management practices and the direction (i.e., source or sink) and magnitude of their effects (9-1). Fertilizer use data necessary to determine emissions were obtained from the Fertilizer Summmy (TVA, 1992), published annually by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) ]National Fertilizer and Environment Research Center. State Department of Agriculture personnel stated that the TVA publication was the only data source. However, it should be kept in mind that TVA data since 1985 were not derived from reports of actual consumption; rather, the data were estimated by TVA as simple proportions of consumption (Hoover, 1997). All emissions calculations were ;performed in accordance with models developed by the EPA as listed in the State Workbook (9-1 - 9-4). The 1989 - 1991 three yeaz average Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-8 annual constunption of fertilizer was used instead of 1990 data alone in order to avoid unusual annual variations due to economic, climatic, and other variables. The following equation was used to calculate emissions: Er Fr x N% z CF, x CF2 (Equation 9.4) Where: Er =annual N20 emissions from fertilizer "f' Fr =annual usage of fertilizer "f' (T/yr.) N% =percent of nitrogen in fertili2er "f' CF, =conversion factor for nitrogen (T/yr.) to N20 as N (T/yr.) = 0.0117 CF2 =conversion factor for N20 as N to N20 (T/yr.) _ 44/28 = 1.57 Nitrous oxide emissions from the annual average of 22,485 tons of fertilizer applied in ]~awaii in the yeazs 1989 - 1991 were 196 tons as depicted on Table 9.7. Table 9.7 N=O Emissions from Fertilizer Applications in Havvai1,1990 Fertilizer Percent CF,: N to N20 CF2: N to N20 N=O Emitted Fertilizer Applkd' (Tons) Ntogen (Tons/Year) (Tons/Ysar) (Tons) Ammonium Sulfate 944 21 0.0117 1.571 4 Urea 2,580 46 0.0117 1.571 22 Other: Nitrogen Solutions 18,961 49 ~ 0.0117 1.571 171 Total 22,485 198 ~ NA. 1692 - Avenge for years 7889 - 1997 u~aE per SfaM Wgkb00k °USEPA, 7995b, TabN 41,9-2 ' NBropen aoW9one vary bsNnan 21 antl 48 percent, high vagro ueeE ' USEPA, 7995b, 42 - 43. 9.6 Emissions from Forest Management and Land-Use Change Human activities involving forest management and land-use changes affect the net flux of cazllon by altering the amount of cazbon stored in the biomass and soils of forest ecosystems. For example, intensified forest management can cause an increased growth rate among forest vegetation, which increases biomass density and thus cazbon uptake. Similazly, increased cazbon uptake and storage in biomass anal soils can result when cropland is abandoned, allowing natural regeneration of forest vegetation. Such activities aze considered here because they Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-9 involve a number of greenhouse gases, including CO„ CH„ and NzO; however, COZ is the gas of primary concern and the focus of this section. The State WorkboAk (10-I - 10-10) provided the models used to determine the magnitude and trends of COz fluxes from forest management practices. The methodology employed was based on the assumption that C02 flux to and from the atmosphere is equal to changes in the cazbon stocks of existing biomass and soils. Three categories of activity were evaluated: • Changes in forests and other biomass stocks (logging, planting, restocking, urban forestry, agroforestry, and fuelwood extraction); • Forest and grassland conversion (permanent forest clearing, conversion of grasslands to cultivated lands, shifting cultivation, urban development, suburban development, and pazking lots); and • Abandonment of managed lands (abandonment of managed pastureland, cropland, etc.) (10-2). The formula for determining carbon emissions from or uptake by forest management practices is as follows: COZ Flux = A+ x GR; x C% x BH; x CF (Equation 9.5) Where: A; = azea of accumulating biomass for forest of type "i", in acres GR; =annual growth rate of tree type "i", in tons of dry matter per acre per yeaz C% =percent of biomass consisting of cazbon (essentially the same for all Hawaiian tree types), expressed as a fraction Bh; =biomass of forest type "i" harvested per yeaz CF =conversion factor for C to COZ = 44/12 (D10-5). This equation igm~res emissions from soils (10-2). Equation 9.5 also assumes that trees replaced baze ground, that is, no biomass was replaced. As a result, uptake as calculated here may be less and emissions from soils may be less, so the two may balance out somewhat. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-70 Although trtodels developed by the EPA were detailed, data inventory proved to be difficult. Published data could not be found on changes in forests in Hawaii. Since the dtata available were minimal and insufficient, calculations were not made; however, discussions with state forestry personnel did result in some informations. The State Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DFW) reported that there aze currently 1.99 million acres of forest in Hawaii, of which 97.7% is classified as "native" forest. The remaining 2.3%, comprising 46,000 acres of "managed" forests, is planted with eucalyptus, other hazdwoods, and pine. The DFW also indicated that, as of 1990, no harvesting has been carried out in any forest on state land since tlhe late 1970s and eazly 1980s. Forestry personnel stated that limited harvesting ktas been carried out on private lands, but no records were available. For these 4ti,000 acres of "managed" forest, the State Workbook (D10-7) provides a table listing the average annual increment in biomass per acre per yeaz for anormally-growing forest plantation. These data have been incorporated into Table 9.8 below. Since annual data for azeas under forest management were unavailable, the total tonnage in Table 9.8 is presented as the 1990 uptake. Table 9.8 Carbon Dioxide Uptake by Managed Forests in Hawaii Total Aires Net Annual with Annual CO2 Accum~u- Annual Carbon Carbon Annual Emissions Type of latintl Annual Biomass Fraction of Uptake Biomass or Tree Biomass' Growth RateZ Increment Dry Matter Increment Harvested Uptake (Tons dm/ (Tons dm/ (Tons C / (Tons C/ (Tons dm/ (Tons C/ (Acreaa) Acre/Year) Year) Tons dm) Year) Year) Year) Eucalyptus 27,50~D 6.5 178,750 0.5 89,375 0.0 -327,708 Hardwoods 12,OO~D 3.0 36,000 0.5 18,000 0.0 -66,000 Pines 6,50(1 1.8 11,700 0.5 5,850 0.0 -21,450 Total 46,OOD 226,450 113,225 0.0 415,158 ~ State of Hawaii, 1995b, Lable 20.01, 508 antl Oiswssions with DFW officials ~ USEPA, 1995b, Table 10-1, 10.5 Om = tlry matter. As can be seen in this table, use of Equation 9.5 for the 46,000 acres of "managed" Forest on state lands in Hawaii shows a substantial uptake of cazbon Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-71 by forests in these managed plantations. Indeed, this uptake is sufficient to more than offset the total tonnage of all greenhouse gases emitted by all other land use practices described in this report. However, mere tonnages are misleading and, in spite of this large negative figure, Hawaii's anthropogenic non-energy greenhouse gas emissions still have a significant positive climate warming capability. Detailed data as required in the State Workbook (10-4) were not available on forest and grassland conversion from state or private sources. The most likely conversion to have: occurred in Hawaii over the past 20 yeazs would be from agricultural lands to urban; however, no published statistics could be found. While little or no conversion of forest land was found to have occurred, some of Hawaii's former sugar cane lands have been converted to other crops such as macadamia nut an<i coffee. Data on abandoned lands, also required to use the State Workbook (10-4) methodology, could not be found. In recent yeazs, several large sugaz plantations have closed in Havvaii and left thousands of acres of former sugarcane fields fallow, converted to other crops, or rezoned for urban uses (residential, resort, commercial, or industrial). Although this loss of cane fields may continue if additional sugaz growing and processing operations aze closed, it is not expected that those lands wlrich have been "abandoned" will remain so for long enough to develop significant: tree growth, unless planted for forestry. However, at the present time, 59,500 acres have been temporarily abandoned across four islands (Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, and Kauai). Accordingly, the current cazbon uptake by these lands was calculated according to the following formula from the State Workbook (D 10-6). C02 Flux A x GR x US x C% x CF (Equation 9.6) Where: A = 20-yeaz (or less) total azea of land abandoned and regrowing, in acres GR =annual rate of aboveground biomass growth, in tons of dry matter per acre per yeaz Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-72 US =annual rate of carbon uptake by soils, in tons per acre C% =percent of biomass consisting of cazbon (essentially the same for all Hawaiian tree types), expressed as fraction CF =conversion factor for C to C02 =44/12. Since no vallues are available in the State Workbook for carbon uptake by tropical or semitropical soils, the value of US for temperate soils, 0.58, was used in Equation 9.15 (Table D10-7, D10-15). The resulting calculation is presented in Table 9.9. Table 9.9 Estimated Carbon Uptake by Abandoned Lands in Hawaii, 1990 Annwl Carbon Total Tonal 20 Ysar Total Annual Rate Annual Carbon Uptake In Annual Carbon Ana of Above- Above- Fnetlon of Above- Annual Carbon Dioxide Abandoned ground ground Above- ground Uptake of Uptake In Emisslon and Blomasa Blomasa ground Blomasa, Carbon in Solla < 20 or Regrowing GnxMh= Growth Blomasa < 20 yeah Solls yn Uptake (Tons dml (Tons C/ (Tons CI (Tons CI (Tons CI (Tons C02! (Acres) Aero/YSar) (Tons dm) Ton dm) Yqr) Aere/Year) Year) Year) 59,500 3.6 214,200 0.5 107,100 0.58 34,510 -519,237 ' Diacuaabns wNh DFW Mfidals a USEPA, 1995b, Tabb 110.5,10.12 tlm = tlry maker. The current trend of abandonment of agricultural lands in Hawaii induces a cazbon uptaake similar to that of forest management practices discussed above. This trend will likely taper off in the future, as these lands are brought into new types of cultivation or aze developed for other uses. However, current plans to convert much of this acreage to crops of macadamia, coffee, eucalyptus and other trees should maintain most of the land as cazbon sinks. Unfortunately, the lack of annual data reporting for this sector in Hawaii makes it impossible to produce tables specifically for 1990 emissions from abandoned agricultural lands. As a result, the total reported here is used for the 1990 value. There aze many uncertainties about emissions from forest and land-use changes. Considering the massive cazbon uptake capability of Hawaii's Forests, shrublands and abandioned agricultural fields, a mechanism should be developed to monitor Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-13 forest and agriculhual activity to determine how these changes affect greenhouse gas emissions. 9.7 Emissions from Burning Agricultural Crop Waste Sugarcane growers in Hawaii bum their crops prior to harvest to reduce the mass of material that must be transported to sugaz mills. Sugazcane crop burning is not practiced annually but rather on a two-yeaz cycle for any given field. Burning of crop matter is inchrded here since it results in the release of several greenhouse gases including CO,, CH„ NOx, and CO. The practice, however, is not considered a net source of CO, because the released C02 is normally reabsorbed by crop regrowth during the next growing season. To determine the emissions of the above greenhouse gases, the following steps were accomplishedl: • Collection of data on sugazcane and pineapple crop annual production; • Conversion of data into pounds of biomass produced to determine emissions; • As per the models listed in the State Workbook, determination of the annual Ieenhouse gas emissions for each crop; and • Plotting; of results and evaluation for any trends. Statewide sugazcazie production data were obtained from the Hawaiian Agricultural Research Center (formerly Hawaiian Sugaz Planters' Association) (HSPA, 1991). Unfortunately, although pineapple crop waste has been burned in Hawaii for several years, data on this crop could not be obtained. Although records were maintained by the Clean Air Branch of the State Department of Health, all records for yeazs prior to 1993 were recently discazded (Tam, 1996). In addition, the State Workbook does not contain any emissions factors for pineapple, factors which were necessary pazameters for any emissions equations. Thus, calculations for pineapple crop waste were not performed. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 8-14 The following five equations were used to determine greenhouse gas emissions for sugazcatie. Equation 9.7 was used to calculate the amount of dry matter burned in pounds. DM = CP x R:C x RB% x DM% x B% (Equation 9.7) Where: DM =dry matter burned (tbs.) CP =crop production (Ibs.) R:C =residue/crop ratio = 0.8 RB% = percent of residue burned, expressed as afraction = 0.1 (EPA default value) DM% = percent of residue consisting of dry matter, expressed as a fraction = 0.90 (EPA default value) B% _ "fraction burned," = 0.93 (EPA default value) Using the n;salt of Equation 9.7, Equation 9.8 was used to calculate the total cazbon oxidized. TCO = DM x C% x CoX% (Equation 9.8) Where: TCO =total cazbon oxidized (Ibs. COZ as C) DM =dry matter burned (tbs.) C% =percent of dry matter consisting of cazbon, expressed as a fraction = 0.4695 CoX% =percent of cazbon oxidized, expressed as afraction = 0.88 Next, Equation 9.9 was used to calculate total nitrogen released in pounds. TNR = TCO x N:C (Equation 9.9) Where: TNR =total nitrogen released (tbs. N) TCO =total cazbon oxidized (Ibs. C02 as C) N:C = nitrogen:cazbon ratio = 0.0064 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-15 Equation 9.10 was used to determine tons of cazbon gas emitted. CG = TCCI a CFC/2000 (Equation 9.10) Where: CG =cazbon gas (CO or CH4) emissions (tons) TCO =total carbon oxidized (Ibs. COZ as C) CFC =conversion factors for carbon gases: CO = 0.06; CH, _ 0.003 Finally, Equation Sl.l l was used to calculate nitrogen gas emissions in tons. NG = TNR'. x CFN/2000 (Equation 9.11) Where: NG =nitrogen gas (NZO or NOx) emissions (tons) TNR =total nitrogen released (lbs. N) C:FN =conversion factor for nitrogen gases: N20 = 0.007; NOx = 0.121 (USEPA, 1995b, 11-2 - 11-4) Some of the variables in Equations 9.7 - 9.11 have questionable merit, especially those in Equation 9.7. For example, the term "fraction burned" is never explained in the Sdzte Workbook, and seems superfluous since a fraction for "residue burned" is already included. Furthermore, the EPA has provided default values for sugazcarle (but not pineapple) in the State Workbook values which may not be applicable to Hawaii. In particulaz, the suggestion that only ] 0% of sugazcane "residue:" is burned seems to be faz too low. However, since local records on these variables are not available, the EPA default values were used. Using Equations 9.7 - 9.11, greenhouse gas emissions were calculated for sugazcane crop burning. Table 9.10 displays the results. Table 9.10 Emissions from Agricultural Field (Sugarcane) Burning in Hawali, 1990 Total Total Total Crop Carla>n Nitropan Total Produc-lion Dry Matter Oxidh~.ed Released CH, Emtted Nr0 Emilted NO, Emitted CO Emitred Emissions (Toro/Year) (roro) (Toro) (TOro) (Toro) (TOro) (Tons) (Tons) (Toro) 6,540,925 437,980 180,9:56 1,158 543 8.1 140 10,857 11,548 Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-16 CO was the primary greenhouse gas emitted by agricultural field burning. This is not surprising, since CO emission is typically a result of oxygen starvation during fires, whichh is common in field burning of carbonaceous matter on this scale. The estimates may also understate actual emissions. Some reasoning for this assertion has alread}~ been explained above, but this does not exhaust the arguments. For example, h~ 1972, the State of Hawaii estimated that agricultural field burning produced 5 7,200 tons of carbon monoxide and 1,140 tons of nitrogen oxides per yeaz (quote;d in American Lung Association, 1974). Furthermore, Daniels (1979) found through field experiments that previous small-scale measurements of CO emissions 1from both sugazcane and pineapple waste burning had grossly underestimated CO emissions per ton of biomass. Daniels concluded that sugarcane produced a surprising 5,000 lbs. of CO per ton of biomass, versus 70.6 ibs.lton as ;measured in previous burn tower experiments. This discrepancy was attributed kry Daniels to accumulation of dried leaves and other material on the ground surface, which restricted airflow neaz the ground (Daniels, 1979). Thus, the numbers in Table 9.10 might be considered minimum values for emissions of the various greenhouse gases. Although emissions were calculated for sugazcane, at least from the standpoint of the State Workbook, it may benefit the state to develop a method for determining the contribution of greenhouse gas emissions from pineapple crop residue. This would result in a more accurate analysis of greenhouse gas contributions from agriculturalI crop burning. It may be useful to develop Hawaii-specific emissions factors, as discussed above. As pointed out both here and in the workbook, the models developed by the EPA aze crude and possess a fairly lazge degree of uncertainty. Reseazch may be needed to determine specific emission ratios based on type of lbiomass and bum conditions. Also ignored in the EPA model is the effect of previous bums on soil cazbon content, which may influence emissions from current or future burns. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory 9-17 APPENDIX A ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Principal Investiitators Maurice H. Kaya, P.E. Wilfred K. Nagamine, P.E. Energy, Resources, and Technology Manager Program Administrator Clean Air Branch Department of Business, Economic Department of Health (DOH) Development, and Tourism (DBEDT) Project Manager.. John Tantlinger, Ed.D. Bazry Ching Energy Planner, DBEDT Planner, DOH Steven C. Alber Saza Russell (until Mazch 1996) Energy Analyst, DBEDT Public Participation Coordinator, DOH (on loan from USEPA) U.S. Environmenital Protection Agency Project Managers Katherine ;iibold Shari Friedman Consultants Systematic Solutions, Inc. University of Hawaii Environmental Fairborn, Ghio Center, Honolulu, Hawaii Jeff' Amlin Jacquelin N. Miller Sue Kleeman James Morrow Veronica Ewald Noel Ludwig Steering Commiti:ee Michael Buck, Administrator, Vicky Chiu-Irion, Energy Analyst Department of Land and Natural DBEDT Resources Walter Kuroiwa, Engineering Program Ronald Nakanishi, Engineer Manager (niow retired) Public Utilities Commission Department of Transportation Frank Uyehara, Engineering Program Eazl Yamamoto, Planner Manager (now retired) Department of Agriculture Department of Transportation Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory Appendix A-1 Committee Resources William A. Bonnett, former Manager Patricia Wong, Manager Environmental Department Environmental Depaztment Hawaiian Electric Company, Inc. Hawaiian Electric Company, Inc. (now President, Maui Electric Co.) Technical Review Committee Richard Bowen, Ph.D. Bruce Miller, Ph.D. Specialist Associate Director Agricultural and Resource Sea Grant Program Economics Department University of Hawaii at Manoa University of Haw:ui at Manoa Hazlan Hashimoto, Ph.D. James Moncur, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Professor Environmental and Public Health Economics Depaztment/Water Departments Resources Research Center University of Hawaai at Manoa University of Hawaii at Manoa Hans-Jurgen Krock., Ph.D. James Morrow Professor/Reseazcher Private Consultant Ocean Engineering Department University of Hawaii at Manoa Fred McKenzie, Pb..D. Scott Seu Professor Principal Environmental Scientist Oceanography Department Hawaiian Electric Company, Inc. University of Hawaai at Manoa Environmental Depaztment Deborah Woodcock, Ph.D. Associate Professor Geography Depaztrnent University of Hawaii at Manoa Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory Appendix A-2 APPENDIX B BIBLIOGRAPHY American Lung Association of Hawaii, 1974. 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Washington, D.C.: Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation, (http://www.epa.gov/globalwanning/sub2/ plan.sub/outreach.sub/stinvmit.sub/alabama/abs.htm, June 27, 1997). U.S. Environmentall Protection Agency (USEPA), 1997b. Abstract: Maine Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks Inventory.. Washington, D.C.: Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation, (http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/sub2/ plansub/outreachs~ub/s6nvmitsub/maine/abs.htm, June 27, 1997). Yuen, Nathan, 1996. Personal communication. Honolulu Resource Recovery Venture (H-POWEIEt), Honolulu, Hawaii, Various. Hawaii Greenhouse Gas Inventory Appendix B-6