HomeMy WebLinkAboutCOM 0664.108 2014-2016 Margaret Wille �;t�of N'
Phone No. Hilo: (808)961-8027
° '`'�,' Phone No. Waimea: (808)887-2043
Council Member -.+°'•�� \,I4
District 9-North and South Kohala Fax No.: (808)887-2072
:pc. .. � E-Mail: mwille@co.hawaii.hi.us
HAWAII COUNTY COUNCIL
County of Hawai`i
Hawaii County Building Holomua Center West Hawaii Civic Center Bldg.A
25 Aupuni Street 64-1067 Mamalahoa Highway,Suite C-5 74-5044 Ane Keohokalole Hwy.
Hilo, Hawaii 96720 Waimea, Hawaii 96743 Kailua-Kona, Hawaii,96740
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TO: Dru Mamo Kanuha, Council Chair
and Members of the Hawaii County Council
FROM: JTMargaret Wille, Council Member Li __
DATE: May 31, 2016
SUBJECT: UH—Hilo Student Study Information for Bill No. 140, Draft 2 Discussion
Please find attached the study from University of Hawai`i—Hilo student Christina Wine
for reference during the Bill No. 140, Draft 2 discussion on June 3, 2016.
Thank you.
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Ref. To:
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Serving the Interests of the People of Our Island Ref, Date JUN 0 3 2
Hawai`i County Is An Equal Opportunity Provider And Employer
Birds, Bills, and Styrofoam: A Review
By Christina Wine
Abstract:
Bill 140 proposes a ban on Styrofoam takeout containers as an amendment to Chapter 20 of the
1983 Hawaii County Code (amended 2005). The bill was originally framed as an attempt to
mitigate deleterious effects of Styrofoam on local seabirds. This review endeavors to disclose
the effects of expanded polystyrene (EPS) production and disposal on other organisms in local
ecological systems, including humans.
Introduction:
Gautam et al (2007)reported that the market for polystyrene in the US was 870 million kg
in 2001 and 923 million kg in 2006. The extremely light weight of extruded or expanded
polystyrene attests to the huge volume of foam produced each year. Attempts to biodegrade EPS
foam have been unsuccessful, except for a very recent experiment using mealworms (Yang et al
2015). This paper will discuss the ecological importance of the plastic reduction proposed by
Bill 140. The bill proposes to implement a"Styrofoam" (expanded polystyrene foam)takeout
container ban on Hawaii island food vendors to reduce landfill clutter, negative impacts on
marine life, and risks to human health. The bill is mirrored by Bill 40 in Oahu. Similar
polystyrene foam takeout container bans are being considered in several mainland cities, and
have already been implemented in dozens more across America and in other countries in South
America, Asia, and Europe, as well as island nations (Ryan 2015, Surfrider Foundation 2016).
Note: STYROFOAMTM is the brand name of a specific type of Extruded Polystyrene(EPS) foam
trademarked by the Dow chemical company for building insulation. Dow does not claim the white foam
used for food and other non-building insulative purposes, despite its widespread usage(Dow Chemical
Company 2016). According to Dow(2016), "there isn't a coffee cup, cooler or packaging material in the
world made from actual STYROFOAMTM Brand Extruded Polystyrene Foam Insulation."This paper will
hereby refer to the material used in takeout containers as EPS (expanded or extruded polystyrene)rather
than Styrofoam.
Polystyrene in the ocean and fire: styrene toxicity
Depending on chemical composition, different types of plastic are associated with
different levels of health risk (Hand 2010, Bittner et al 2014). Many include bioreactive
additives, and some are based on monomers that affect endocrine systems, like BPA, or
monomers that are toxic or carcinogenic, like styrene and benzene (Oehlmann et al 2009, Wang
et al 2001).
The timeless chemical rule that"like dissolves like" means that hydrophobic plastics are
good at keeping out water-based life. Thus plastics dominate in the medical industry and as food
packaging (PET Resin Association 2016) However, it also means that waterborne plastic can
collect and effectively concentrate fellow hydrophobic pollutants, including poisons (Rochman
et al 2013, Colabuono et al 2010, Teuten et al 2009). Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and
heavy metals collect in floating plastic, are ingested by plankton and fish, and biomagnify
(Teuten et al 2009). It has become increasingly dangerous for humans eat at the "top" of the
food web. Polystyrene in particular has been known to concentrate PCBs (Teuten et al 2009).
Captain Charles Moore (of the Algalita vessel known for raising awareness of the
magnitude of plastic pollution in the ocean) calls expanded polystyrene the "worst of all the
plastics" because its chemical structure leads to the infiltration of"every ecological niche"
(personal communication Moore 2016). Since polystyrene in its natural state is denser than
seawater, it is only kept afloat in its expanded form by chambers of gas (Total Petrochemical
2016 and Dow Chemical 2016, Gautam et al 2007). As time passes, the walls of the chambers
degrade, pockets fill with water, and the piece of polystyrene, aided by pressure, slowly sinks
through depth-limited ecosystems (Moore 2016). This would explain the seeming low
percentage of EPS foam pieces ingested by albatrosses and other far-foraging birds; the foam
may be sinking before it travels far offshore (Azarello and Vleet 1987, Moore 2016). Not only
does the polymer grow more insidious with time, but its toxicity increases as it degrades to
styrene and any added conditioners leach out (Kwon et al 2015).
Floating plastic debris also break down the natural barriers that preserve ecological
diversity between oceans, providing rafts for whole adults to travel and invade new oceans
(Gregory 2009). The slow raft ride allows invasives time to deal with changes in temperature
and other parameters, says Moore (2016).
Seabirds (along with reptiles, mammals, and other marine organisms) have been
ingesting plastics for decades (Ryan 2008). Humans have barely begun to realize the dangers of
some of the plastics they created, and evolution takes generations to occur (Nettleship 1991).
Because they are long-lived, slow to mature, and relatively slow to reproduce, seabirds are slow
to recover from human-made troubles like the sudden influx of plastic in the environment,
coupled with a reduction of natural food sources due to ocean warming and acidification
(Nettleship 1991, Safina 2014).
The manufacturing process of polystyrene is imperfect, leaving a small percentage of the
toxic monomer styrene in the final product(Araya et al 2000). As the polymer degrades, styrene
oligomers are released (Halden 2010, Kwon et al 2015). The Material Safety Data Sheet for
polystyrene includes a section on the hazards that arise with combustion of the polymer (Total
Petrochemicals 2016). Once again, the "like dissolves like" rule applies: hydrophobic substances
stored in containers can start to dissolve the polymer. This applies to oils present in food.
Classified as a possible human carcinogen, the volatile styrene monomer irritates human
lungs and mucous membranes in the short term, affects the central nervous system over time, and
intensifies risk of leukemia and lymphoma(Araya et al 2000, OSHA 2016). The OSHA website
states that "exposure to styrene may... include complaints of headache, fatigue, dizziness,
confusion, drowsiness, malaise, difficulty in concentrating, and a feeling of intoxication".
Wang et al (2001, 2002) produced a two-part study on the combustion of polystyrene and
its emissions. The burning of this material produces a large amount of black soot and releases
Another emissions study on styrene and polystyrene by Ergut et al (2007) looked at incomplete
combustion and other resulting conditions of polystyrene disposal attempts. Both studies
reported styrene and benzene (a confirmed human carcinogen) emissions.
Arguments for the production and use of Styrofoam
Perhaps even more than for its insulating properties, Styrofoam is valued for its seeming
cheapness, its light weight, and its convenience. These are the typical arguments for the ongoing
mass production of plastic, particularly single-use plastic.
Industry-backing yet legitimate-sounding corporations like the American Chemistry
Council push single-use containers on the flimsy basis that they use "less detergent" because
they don't have to be washed, only replaced (American Chemistry Council 2016). The
American Chemistry Council trade group, recently merged with the American Plastics Council,
represents plastic and oil companies including ExxonMobil, Chevron, Shell, and Dow Chemical,
creator of Styrofoam (Sourcewatch 2016, Goldman et al 2015). The ACC lobbies each year and
has run campaigns to fight the elimination of single-use plastic, including "Save the Plastic Bag"
(Sourcewatch 2016). Its website pushes ideas like "Formaldehyde is natural" and"BPA is
perfectly safe" without addressing even the well-known health risks or controversies of such
compounds (American Chemistry Council 2016, Goldman et al 2015).
Another argument is that the foam "takes up less space in the landfill", or can be "burned
at the H-Power plant" (KHON2 2016, Matthews 2014). Ergut et al (2007) report the expansive
amount of foam in landfills as a"grave concern". The "takes up less space" argument is based
on the airy nature of the foam, and assumes that it can be crushed flat.
Margaret Wille (personal communication 2016) emphasized that the cost of an item does
not end with its purchase, but extends to its disposal. The cost to crush the high-volume foam to
fit in Hawaii's limited landfills must be taken into account.
The H-Power plant seems like a good idea: producing energy from space-filling, toxic,
common trash. The boiler temperatures reach 1800 to 2000 degrees Fahrenheit, or 982--1093
degrees Celsius, which hits the 1000 degree Celsius maximum mark of the studies conducted on
emissions by Ergut et al (2007), Wang et al (2001, 2002), and Westblad et al (2001). One of the
statements on the ACC's flier is that "Styrofoam burns cleanly" (ACC 2016), which, unless
"burns cleanly" equates to "produces toxic black smoke containing carcinogens and highly
functioning greenhouse gases", is unfounded.
Reduce, reuse, recycle, refuse
The EPA(1986) reported that by volume, plastic packaging represents a large percentage
of municipal waste. Volume matters in landfills. It also reports that polystyrene was, in 1986,
the fifth highest generator of hazardous waste.
Although recycling mitigates the effects of many types of plastic, the recent drop in oil
price has had debilitating effects on recycling efforts. When the finiteness of fossil fuel is
disregarded, it seems "cheaper"to produce new plastics than to recycle them. Tully (2016) of
OilPrice.com reports that as oil has cheapened from $110/barrel to $40/barrel, the price of scrap
plastic has dropped from $2000/ton to $30/ton, so recycling facilities can't afford to clean and
sort existing plastic. According to Recycle Hawaii's web site (2016), Hawaii island does not
accept#6 plastic at all. Many facilities that do accept#6 resin specifically exclude EPS foam
(Livestrong 2016). Alternatives are needed to prevent waste from piling up in the landfill or
blowing into the ocean.
In sharp contrast to the American Chemistry Council, European plastic manufacturer
PlasticsEurope advertises a"Zero Waste to Landfill" goal on its web site and promotes pro-
recycling, waste-minimizing ideas in a"Response to Green Paper on Plastics in the
Environment" (PlasticsEurope 2013). The response starts with the statement,"Plastic waste is a
valuable resource and should be treated as such". It emphasizes that "better implementation and
enforcement of existing waste legislation is key; a ban on/phase-out of the landfilling of
recyclable and highly combustible waste would stimulate the recycling and energy recovery of
plastic waste". It calls for "strict enforcement of EU legislation for exports of waste to Non-EU
countries and "Schengen-area" for intra-EU movement of waste" and the promotion of
biodegradable plastics, and firmly and clearly states that"Plastic waste in the marine
environment is unacceptable" (PlasticsEurope 2013).
Alternatives
Many alternatives exist to single-use, non-biodegradable plastic packaging. Indian
innovator Narayana Peesapaty has created sustainably sourced edible cutlery that degrades
within days after its shelf life (Desai 2016). Kosuke Araki has developed plastic-like material
out of agar(Pangburn 2016). Less sustainable, but still resourceful, another inventor has
produced a plastic-like material out of fish scales discarded by the fishing industry(Zimmerman
2011). Synbra Technologies produces "Biofoam", a closed-loop EPS alternative produced from
sugar cane instead of oil (Synbra Technologies 2016). Synbra claims that the greenhouse effect
of Biofoam is lower than that of cardboard and plastic. Even recycled paper would provide a
better alternative to non-recyclable, long-lived, toxic petroleum derivatives.
The FDA currently rejects the idea of customer-brought reusable food containers because
of the risk of contamination, but industrial dishwashers allow legal and successful reusable
container programs to exist on some college campuses (Meyer 2013). Once sustainable
alternatives replace plastic packaging, reusable containers could probably complement the
single-use compostable ones. For example, a thinner sterile agar plastic package could be used
to transfer food from a vendor and line a customer's reusable container. If no reusable container
was available, a small fee could be implemented to purchase a sturdier agar container. The food
would still be bolstered by a reusable container if it was purchased to sit for long periods of time.
Even if the packaging blew into the ocean, it would have no adverse effects.
Conclusions
This bill, the next step in eliminating disposable plastic from Hawaii nei, absolutely
needs to be passed. Contrary to the propaganda spread by the American Chemistry Council,
eliminating polystyrene foam takeout containers would reduce pollution, hazardous waste, and
greenhouse gas emission(lots of sources here). The state of the plastic pollution problem in the
oceans demands immediate action.
Compostable containers would fit into Hawaii County's upcoming compost program, cut
down on landfill costs (source), and would be worth the price per plate. A program implementing
sanitary reusable or other low-impact containers should be considered as the next step to reduce
resource waste. Hawaii's island status demands sustainability, and should open the way for new,
environmentally friendly technologies.
EPS foam is unsafe in manufacture, in use, in the environment, and in the boiler. Its
harmful and wasteful production should be stopped immediately, especially for disposable food
items, and Hawaii should set an example in sustainability and eco-awareness by passing Bill 140
in Hilo, Bill 40 in Oahu, and similar bills in Maui County and on Kauai.
References (Annotated)
Araya P, Chamy R, Mota M, Alves M (2000) Biodegradability and toxicity of styrene in the
anaerobic digestion process. Biotechnology Letters 22:1477-1481
Styrene isn't that great for you. Good base of knowledge in the introduction even if you can't
understand the methods or results.
Azzarello M, Vleet EV (1987) Marine birds and plastic pollution. Marine Ecology Progress
Series Mar Ecol Prog Ser 37:295-303
This article mentions Styrofoam separately from "polystyrene" in this article, which led me to
research the difference between polystyrene and Styrofoam. I learned that the foam used
in food containers isn't actually Styrofoam, but"expanded polystyrene" or EPS. I
wonder if other articles are written with this distinction in mind. Styrofoam seems to
represent only a small percentage of seabird ingested content, which brings up the point,
"Where is it going?" The article mentions several useful studies conducted on plastics in
the ocean.
American Chemistry Council (2016) plastics.americanchemistrycouncil.com
ACC website. Multiple web pages used, including a flier. Lots of propaganda.
Capitola Municipal Code (2016) Chapter 8.36 ENVIRONMENTALLY ACCEPTABLE
PACKAGING MATERIALS. Web accessed April 2016.
Colabuono FI, Taniguchi S, Montone RC (2010) Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine
pesticides in plastics ingested by seabirds. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60:630-634
This article provides a good reference (and references to other sources!) about the harm of plastic
on wildlife, including its tendency to absorb and concentrate toxins. The results section rates
seabird-ingested plastic abundance by type.
Desai A (2016) Indian Develops Edible Cutlery - Made From Millets, It's Not Just Tantalizingly
Spicy But Nutritious And Eco-Friendly Too. The Inquisitr News. Web accessed 2016.
Edible cutlery to replace the disposable plastic kind.
Dow Chemical Company (2016) There's No Such thing as a STYROFOAMTM Cup. Web
Accessed April 2016.
Dow's clarification on what STYROFOAM "really" is: a trademarked blue-colored insulating
material for buildings.
Eriksen M, Lebreton LCM, Carson HS, Thiel M, Moore CJ, Borerro JC, Galgani F, Ryan PG,
Reisser J (2014) Plastic Pollution in the World's Oceans: More than 5 Trillion Plastic
Pieces Weighing over 250,000 Tons Afloat at Sea. PLoS ONE 9
Plastic quantification study that employed net trawls and plastic piece counts.
Goldman G, Carlson C, Zhang Y (2015) Bad Chemistry: How the Chemical Industry's Trade
Association Undermines the Policies That Protect Us. Union of Concerned Scientists at
the Center for Science and Democracy
Eye-opening debunking by the "Union of Concerned Scientists". This was a comforting source
against the ACC's blatantly misleading statements.
New Seaweed-Based Material Could Replace Plastic Packaging (2016) GOOD Magazine
Kosuke Araki and friends' agar packaging project.
Gregory MR(2009) Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings--
entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364:2013-2025
Styrofoam is mentioned here as one of the types of debris mistaken by fulmars for cuttlebone.
Some of the big ideas in the introduction are that plastics are being found in more remote
locations than before, such as the poles, but are decreasing in some habited areas like
New Zealand shores. The author suggests that the decrease may indicate changes in
shipping and handling rather than actual pollution reduction efforts, and I worry that the
plastics are just making their way around the world on the slow-moving ocean currents,
seeming to "disappear" only because they are so relatively new. Another good talking
point mentioned briefly is that sea turtles have been ingesting plastic. I thought this
might help because from all I have seen and heard living here, I think a lot of people in
Hawaii are more familiar/concerned with sea turtles than they are with seabirds. This
article really gets you thinking about plastic production!
Hand L (Ed) (2010) Plastics: Danger where we least expect it. Harvard TH Chan School of
Public Health. Web accessed April 2016.
Good plastics source.
Hawaii County, Wille M (2016) Bill No. 140, Draft 2.
The revised bill. Takes into account many factors including health risks and even the small point
of the name"Styrofoam".
Hawaii Electric Light(2012) Hawaiian Electric and C & C Honolulu reach new H-POWER
purchase agreement. Web accessed April 2016.
Needed it for furnace temperature.
Kwon BG, Koizumi K, Chung S-Y, Kodera Y, Kim J-O, Saido K (2015) Global styrene
oligomers monitoring as new chemical contamination from polystyrene plastic marine
pollution. Journal of Hazardous Materials 300:359-367
Beautiful article specific to PS in the marine environment.
Marsh K, Bugusu B (2007) Food Packaging--Roles, Materials, and Environmental Issues.
Journal of Food Science J Food Science 72:R39—R55
Good source on food packaging, an issue we don't really think about.
Matthews K (2014) Styrofoam food containers may be banned in near future. KHON2
Mirror bill on Oahu.
Meyer R(2013) How to Start a Reusable Takeout Container Program at Your College. Web
accessed April 2016.
Self-explanatory! Great! Colleges have a small deposit and use a dishwasher.
National Survey of Solid Waste (Municipal) Landfill Facilities (1986)National Service Center
for Environmental Publications. Web accessed April 2016.
Very long report that is cited everywhere for that one fact about PS being the fifth largest
creator of hazardous waste. You can get very basic searchable text (sacrificing
formatting) on the EPA website. Surprising numbers.
National Toxicology Program (2011) Report on Carcinogens, Thirteenth Edition. Styrene.
Department of Health and Human Services
"Styrene is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen ...based on studies of workers
exposed to styrene that showed(1) increased mortality from or incidence of cancer of the
lymphohematopoietic system and (2) increased levels of DNA adducts and genetic
damage in lymphocytes from exposed workers..."
exposure to styrene after an appropriate elapsed time since first ex
Nettleship DN (1991) Seabird Management and Future Research. Colonial Waterbirds 14:77-
215
Good basic seabird source. Includes threats to seabirds.
Oehlmann J, Schulte-Oehlmann U, Kloas W, Jagnytsch 0, Lutz I, Kusk KO, Wollenberger L,
Santos EM, Paull GC, Look KJWV, Tyler CR(2009) A critical analysis of the biological
impacts of plasticizers on wildlife. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences 364:2047-2062
Good source on plasticizers: the additives used to soften plastic, and their adverse effects.
PlasticsEurope Association of Plastic Manufacturers (2016) Zero plastics to landfill. Web
Accessed May 2016.
Surprising source, good goals, plastics europe! They at least claim to want to eliminate all waste
from plastic! Awesome! Very different from the ACC.
PlasticsEurope Association of Plastic Manufacturers (2013) Response to the Green Paper on
Plastics in the Environment. Web Accessed May 2016
More formal version of the above source, detailing the "response to green paper". Says nice
statements like "Plastic in the marine environment is unacceptable." I agree!
Rochman CM, Hoh E, Hentschel BT, Kaye S (2013) Long-Term Field Measurement of Sorption
of Organic Contaminants to Five Types of Plastic Pellets: Implications for Plastic Marine
Debris. Environmental Science & Technology Environ Sci Technol.
Good base research on how plastic pellets concentrate hydrophobic toxins.
Ryan PG (2008) Seabirds indicate changes in the composition of plastic litter in the Atlantic and
South-Western Indian Oceans. Marine Pollution Bulletin 56:1406-1409
This article helps fill in the timeline of changing ocean plastic composition. Tying in with other
researchers, the data show a decrease in plastic "virgin pellet" proportion. While
mentioning some useful sources (including Robards et al 1995!), the author brings up a
good point: that"when attempting to use birds to monitor changes in plastic at sea, it is
important to compare birds from the same region, and to ensure that bird age and season
of sampling does not influence plastic loads".
Safina C (2015) How Climate Change is Sinking Seabirds. Audubon magazine. Web accessed
April 2016.
The ocean is warming and krill eggs are getting outnumbered by plastic. Bad news for seabirds.
Spear LB, Ainley DG, Ribic CA (1995) Incidence of plastic in seabirds from the tropical pacific,
1984-1991: Relation with distribution of species, sex, age, season, year and body weight.
Marine Environmental Research 40:123-146
This study was nice and broad, spanning 36 plasticky seabird species (n=1574 total
plasticked individuals), from 110-150 degrees of longitude over 1984--1991. The
researchers wanted to visualize plastics in a community setting, so age-related variables
were measured along with types of ingested plastic. An interesting study.
Surfrider Foundation (2016) Polystyrene Ordinances. Web accessed 2016.
List of places where EPS bans are in play. "Not updated regularly"--yay, there may be more!
Synbra Technology by Biofoam (2016) Energy requirements and CO2 emission for polymers.
Web Accessed May 2016
Sweet, Biofoam exists!! Includes graphs and statistics like pound-for-pound emissions of some
packaging materials (Biofoam produces less than cardboard.)
Teuten EL, Saquing JM, Knappe DRU, Barlaz MA, Jonsson S, Bjorn A, Rowland SJ, Thompson
RC, Galloway TS, Yamashita R, Ochi D, Watanuki Y, Moore C, Viet PH, Tana TS,
Prudente M, Boonyatumanond R, Zakaria MP, Akkhavong K, Ogata Y, Hirai H, Iwasa S,
Mizukawa K, Hagino Y, Imamura A, Saha M, Takada H (2009) Transport and release of
chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife. Philosophical Transactions of
the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364:2027-2045
This is a rich plastics article highlighting different forms of plastic, their chemical consequences,
and some effects on wildlife. Polystyrene appears at last! Important fact: polystyrene
was found to collect PCBs via adsorption. The article indicates that plastic production
should be minimized ASAP! Landfills aren't the end of plastic; the chemicals leach into
the environment and start to "migrate" outward.
Total Petrochemicals (2016) Material Safety Data Sheet for Polystyrene.
MSDS for polystyrene. Check out the hazards. Nothing like Styrene, though.
Tully A (2016) Low Oil Prices Take Their Toll On Recycling Sector. www. OilPrice.com. Web
Accessed May 2016
Surprising source again; oilprice.com tells how the lowered price of oil affects recycling
industry, without pretending that it's a good thing. Sad news, though.
Reece JB, Campbell NA (2011) Campbell biology, 8th edn. Benjamin Cummings. Pearson,
Boston. Chapter 23 The evolution of populations, pp. 479
Just for that one section on the smallest unit possible for evolution.
United States Department of Labor Occupational Safety & Health Administration(2016) Safety
and Health Topics: Styrene. Web Accessed 2016.
OSHA: "About 90,000 workers, including those who make boats, tubs, and showers, are
potentially exposed to styrene. Health effects from exposure to styrene may involve the
central nervous system and include complaints of headache, fatigue, dizziness, confusion,
drowsiness, malaise, difficulty in concentrating, and a feeling of intoxication."
Vlietstra LS, Parga JA (2002) Long-term changes in the type, but not amount, of ingested plastic
particles in short-tailed shearwaters in the southeastern Bering Sea. Marine Pollution
Bulletin 44:945-955
This is another good seabird plastic ingestion article. They sorted results by color categories.
The results show that short-tailed shearwaters have undergone a change in type of
ingested plastic from "industrial plastic to consumer plastic" over the years from the 70s
until the 1990s, though the total amount ingested has remained the same.
Wang J, Levendis YA, Richter H, Howard JB, Carlson J (2001) Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbon and Particulate Emissions from Two-Stage Combustion of Polystyrene:
The Effect of the Primary Furnace Temperature. Environmental Science & Technology
Environ Sci Technol 35:3541-3552
Benzene, styrene, soot. All bad. Also, 1000 degrees max falls within the Hpower boiler range.
Wang J, Richter H, Howard JB, Levendis YA, Carlson J (2002) Polynuclear Aromatic
Hydrocarbon and Particulate Emissions from Two-Stage Combustion of Polystyrene:
The Effects of the Secondary Furnace (Afterburner) Temperature and Soot Filtration.
Environmental Science & Technology Environ Sci Technol 36:797-808
Part 2 of the study.
Waste Wise Products (2013) The Problem With Recycling Styrofoam. Web accessed May 2016.
Talks about styrofoam, its problems, and how it isn't accepted with other#6 resins for recycling.
World Health Organization(1994) STYRENE. International Agency for the Research of Cancer.
Toxicity of styrene.
Yang Y, Yang J, Wu W-M, Zhao J, Song Y, Gao L, Yang R, Jiang L (2015) Biodegradation and
Mineralization of Polystyrene by Plastic-Eating Mealworms: Part 1. Chemical and Physical
Characterization and Isotopic Tests. Environmental Science & Technology Environ Sci Technol
49:12080-12086
Will mealworms and their gut bacteria save us from polystyrene pollution? They can certainly
try.
Zimmerman J (2011) Your next plastic cup could be made out of fish. Grist website.
Fish scales heated and pressed into "plastic". Key quote: "There's nothing added to it but dye for
color, so you could probably throw it in the ocean and the ocean wouldn't even care!"
A really wonderful list of sources is here http://rstb.rovalsocietvpublishing.org/content/364/1526
Theme Issue 'Plastics, the environment and human health' compiled by R. C. Thompson, C. J.
Moore, F. S. vom Saal and S. H. Swan.