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Home My WebLink AboutCOM 0107.113 2016-2018 • COUNTY CLERK COUNTY OF HAWAII RECEIVED Time l6:13 OWN►, By&L.__ Murashige, Laura Dated 2p17 From: lamson@hawaii.edu on behalf of Megan Lamson <meg.HWF@gmail.com> Sent: Tuesday, February 21, 2017 9:50 AM To: Council Testimony; Kanuha, Dru; Poindexter, Valerie; Chung,Aaron; David, Maile; Lee Loy, Sue; Ohara, Eileen; Ruggles,Jennifer; Richards,Tim; Eoff, Karen Cc: Mayor's internet email;Toguchi, Marcie Subject: HWF supports Bill 13 (testimony for 2/21 EMC meeting) Attachments: HWF_foam.bill.13_feb2017.pdf; Science EPS study 2016.pdf; Carson et al. 2013b.pdf Aloha Chair O'Hara and fellow members of the Environmental Management Committee, Please see attached for my testimony of STRONG SUPPORT for Bill 13 and two scientific journal articles referenced within it. For any of the four new Councilmembers, please let me know if you'd like to be forwarded any of our previous testimonies from 2016 (Bill 140) or additional academic support for this important issue. Me ka mahalo, Megan <"))))« <*))))« <"))))« »(((*> <"))))« Megan R.McWhite Lamson,M.S. &HAWAI'I WILDLIFE FUND http://www.wildhawaii.org/ Hawai'i Island Program Director @wildhawaii-#wildhawaii meg.HWFOgmail.com debris hotline 808/769-7629 Join our HWF e-newsletter®http://eepurl.com/boAxvj Gomm. No. tOle /I3 - Ref. To: Ref. Date MAR 0 8 2917 hawai"Wildlife runcl cAlIKVA >, `a o5t Office I5ox J"O • Volcano, • 96785r t h , LJl1.rt`>LIfi F KILN. 4<i 3sF t � moi.;'i '"` br a;�� .. Celebrating 20 years of protecting Hawai`i's native wildlife through research,education and conservation. 21 February 2017 Aloha mai kakou, My name is Megan Lamson and I am a marine biologist with Hawai`i Wildlife Fund, and I was a member of the HIPSIS sustainability task force last year. Welcome to the four new Councilmembers and mahalo for another opportunity to work with the Council to promote initiatives,like Bill 13, that would reduce our use of single-use plastics on our island home. We are supporting this bill to reduce polystyrene foam food containers and food service ware on Hawai`i Island after July 2018 for three main reasons: 1) science documenting danger to our health, environment, and marine life; 2) economic nearsightedness; and 3) strong community support coupled with common sense. First off, the science: • Polystyrene foam products are made of styrene. According to OSHA, "Health effects from exposure to styrene may involve the central nervous system and include complaints of headache,fatigue, dizziness, confusion, drowsiness, malaise, difficulty in concentrating, and a feeling of intoxication." Plus,the overall evaluation of styrene according to PubMed is that"it is possibly carcinogenic to humans." Regardless of the designation, it is clear that it is unsafe for human health. ▪ New research published in the journal Science (see attached), found that fish reared in the presence of polystyrene particles (of the type you are considering in this bill)that matched concentrations of polystyrene found in nature preferred to eat the polystyrene over natural prey. Eating polystyrene was shown to inhibit their hatching, decrease their growth, alter their behavior, and increase mortality. • Foam continues to be found during coastal cleanups. In Sept 2015, at least 1,925 foam pieces were removed from the shores of Hawaii Island during the annual "Get the Drift and Bag It" cleanup events. -- www.wildhawaii.org• Tax ID 99-0326669 ------- -------— ▪ A 2013 study conducted by UH Hilo professor, Dr. Hank Carson (see attached), proved outright that some of the sources of marine debris around Hawaii are locally sourced. • Polystyrene,like most plastics, does not biodegrade and will last in our landfills indefinitely, despite their intended design to be used for less than an hour. And the second reason, economics: • The arguments AGAINST banning foam products are thinking in a very linear fashion. A two penny to 25 cents difference in the cost of a foam- alternative is just the bottom line to vendors. We need to think about the end life of these products in our landfills, along our roadsides, and eventually in our oceans. Foam food containers are costing taxpayers millions of dollars in hidden cleanup costs. ▪ The Hilo landfill is full to exploding and they've been threatening to close it down for years. As such,the County commissioned a pilot study in 2012 to determine if it would be more cost efficient to haul East Hawai`i's waste to West Hawai`i. The results of this study indicate that hauling solid waste across the island would cost the County at least $50 /ton or about $3,400,000 annually. The true "cost" of extra foam in our landfills is MUCH more than the negligible difference between the prices of a single compostable vs foam food container. • Hawaii State Department of Transportation — Highways Division in O`ahu produced a Trash Reduction Plan in 2016 that shows styrofoam and plastic bags as top contributors to the waste stream, and they even suggested a Styrofoam ban ordinance in their long-term control measures. • Hawaii Wildlife Fund estimates that it costs us about $800 per ton to remove marine debris from along the shores of Hawai`i Island. Over 85% of this debris is made of plastic, including polystyrene foam pieces. To date, we have removed nearly 200 tons of marine debris from this island with the help of thousands of volunteers. Hands down,the best way to prevent marine debris in the first place is to stop it at the source,with reduction bans, regulations and changes in consumer and commercial behavior. Last but not least, strong community support and simple common sense: • Over 135 restaurants and food vendors on Hawaii Island have already opted out of foam products for their take-out food containers, including mom and pop stores, Suisan Fish Market, Sam Choy's, and many more! • Two statewide foam bills are being heard during this legislative session (SB 1109 and HB 1545) and over 600 testimonies of support have been received by the state capitol for these initiatives. --- -- www.wildhawaii.org• Tax lD 99-0326669 We live on an island and should NOT be importing or creating products that cannot be disposed of properly. Currently, we can ONLY recycle #1, #2 and #5 plastics (and certain #4s). Polystyrene is #6 and there is NO means to recycle it on our island. In the end, we have the choice to lead or follow in this move towards sustainability and community/ ecosystem health. We urge you to choose the former option and to move this Bill 13 through this Environmental Management Committee and the full County Council hearings. Mahalo nui loa for your time and consideration. Mahalo nui loa! Me ke aloha pumehana, P_�„�. 1 ifs` fl�411 >�a. Megan K. Lamson , M.5. hawai`i Wilc!life run LIawai`i Island Program Director meg.rlWL@gmail.com - (808) 217-5777 --- _ ----- --- ------- www.wi/dhiawaii.org• Tax ID 99--0326669 --.-- _-- • RESEARCH j REPORTS limiting(-2 days),as indicated by the cessation 15. M.W.Kanan,D.G.Nocera,Science 321,1072-1075(2008). 33.J.Lu.C.J.Brigham,C.S.Gai,A.J.Sinskey,Appl.Microbiol. of biomass accumulation(Fig.3A)as well as the 16. S.Y.Reece et al.,Science 334,645-648(2011). Biotechnol.96,283-297(2012). 17. A.Pohlmann et al.,Nat.Biotechnol.24,1257-1262 rlelec measured every 24 hours 3B and fig.S13). (2006). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS With a titer of-700 mg/liter,the 6-day average for 18.J.P.Torella et al.,Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.U.S.A.112,2337-2342 We thank N.Li for ICP-MS measurement and reagents,and J.Torella, PHB synthesis was rlelec=36±3%(Fig.2A,entry 9) (2015). C.Myhrvold,C.Lemon.and M.Huynh for helpful discussions.C.L. with a 24-hour maximum of rlelec=42±2%(n=3) 19. D.A.Lutterman,Y.Surendranath,D.G.Nocera,J.Am.Chem. acknowledges X.Ling at Nanyang Technological University.Supported (Fig.3B).In engineered strains(32,33),this PHB Soc.131,3838-3839(2009). by a Lee Kuan Yew Postdoctoral Fellowship(C.L.),a predoctoral 20.D.K.Bediako,A.M.Ullman,D.G.Nocera,Top.Curs Chem. fellowship from the NSF Graduate Research Fellowships Program pathway could be modified to excrete the fusel 371,173-213(2016). (B.C.C.),Office of Naval Research Multidisciplinary University Research alcohols isopropanol(C3),isobutanol(C4), and 21. I.Paseka,J.Velicka,Electrochim.Acta 42,237-242 Initiative award N00014-11-1-0725(P.A.S.),Air Force Office of 3-methyl-1-butanol(C5),which possess energy den- (1997). Scientific Research grant FA9550-09-1-0689(D.G.N.),the Wyss cities of 24, 28, and 31 MJ/liter, respectively.The 22.Y.Surendranath,D.A.Lutterman,Y.Liu,D.G.Nocera,J.Am. Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering(P.A.S.),and the Harvard Chem.Soc.134,6326-6336(2012). University Climate Change Solutions Fund.This work was performed culture supernatant was then analyzed to quantify 23.See supplementary materials on Science Online. under the First 100 W Program at Harvard University.C.L.,B.C.C.,M.Z., the secreted alcohols (23). The accumulation 24.M.Dinca,Y.Surendranath,D.G.Nocera,Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci. P.A.S.,and D.G.N.are inventors on patent applications(62/218,131) U.S.A.107,10337-10341(2010). filed byHarvard Universityand Harvard Medical School related of these liquid fuels followed trends similar to those observed for PHB synthesis.As shown in Fig. 25.J.Yu,A.Dow,S.Pingali,Int.J.Hydrogen Energy 38, to the technology described in this paper.The genome sequences 8683-8690(2013). are accessible in the NCB!SRA database under accession 3,C and E,biomass production reached a plateau 26.G.T.Rochelle,Science 325,1652-1654(2009). number SRP073266. while isopropanol titers grew to -600 mg/liter 27.J.R.Roede,G.W.Miller,in Encyclopedia of Toxicology, and C4+C5 alcohol titers grew to-220 mg/liter. P.Wexler,Ed.(Academic Press,ed.3,1984),pp.756-758. 28.M.Ludwig,J.A.Cracknell,K.A.Vincent,F.A.Armstrong, SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS An engineered R.eutrophy strain produced iso- 0.Lenz,J.Biol.Chem.284,465-477(2009). www.sciencemag.org/content/352/6290/1210/suppl/DC1 propanol with a 6-day average rtelec = 31 ±4% 29.A.M.Appel et al..Chem.Rev.113,6621-6658(2013). Methods (Fig. 2A, entry 10)and a 24-hour maximum of 30.A.Parkin,J.Seravalli,K.A.Vincent,S.W.Ragsdale, Tables 51 to S3 o F.A.Armstrong,J.Am.Chem.Soc.129,10328-10329(2007). Figs.51 to S14 N rlelec=39±2%(n=4)(Fig.3D);a strain engi- 31. T.Reda,C.M.Plugge,N.J.Abram,J.Hirst,Proc.Natl.Acad. References(34-49) N neered to produce C4+C5 alcohols averaged a Sci.U.S.A.105,10654-10658(2008). a) 6-day rlelec=16±2%(Fig.2A,entry 11)with a 32.E.Grousseau,J.Lu,N.Gorret,S.E.Guillouet,A.J.Sinskey, 18 February 2016:accepted 22 April 2016 ti 24-hour maximum of rlelec = 27 ± 4% (n = 3) App!.Microbiol.Biotechnol.98,4277-4290(2014). 10.1126/science.aaf5039 (Fig. 3F). The achieved titers are higher than previous reported values,and rlelec values have o increased by a factor of at least 20 to 50(10,18). CO R.eutropha has demonstrated tolerance toward E C OT OX I C O LOGY E isopropanol(fig.S14),allowing for enriched prod- a) U uct concentrations under extended operation. ....., s::1Our combined catalyst design mitigates bio- Environmentally relevant c., toxicity at a systems level, allowing water- • ai splitting catalysis to be interfaced with engineered concentrations of microplastiea) c.) organisms to realize high CO2 reduction efficien- •o cies that exceed natural photosynthetic systems. particles influence cn larval fish ecology Because Eappi required for water splitting is low ..„., E. values are achieved that (1.8 to 2.0 V),high rl�ec . translate directly to high solar-to-chemical efficien- Oona M.L®nnstedt*and Peter Ekliiv des (rlscE) when coupled to a typical solar to- o electricity device (11scE = rlsolar x rlelec). For a The widespread occurrence and accumulation of plastic waste in the environment have 'O photovoltaic device of risdar=18%,the Co-PICoPil become a growing global concern over the past decade.Although some marine organisms CO R. eutropha hybrid system can achieve ism = have been shown to ingest plastic,few studies have investigated the ecological effects o 9.7%for biomass,7.6%for bioplastic,and 7.1% of plastic waste on animals. Here we show that exposure to environmentally relevant 3 for fusel alcohols.This approach allows for the concentrations of microplastic polystyrene particles(90 micrometers)inhibits hatching, Q development of artificial photosynthesis with decreases growth rates,and alters feeding preferences and innate behaviors of European efficiencies well beyond that of natural photo- perch(Perca fluviatilis) larvae. Furthermore, individuals exposed to microplastics do not synthesis,thus providing a platform for the dis- respond to olfactory threat cues,which greatly increases predator-induced mortality rates. tributed solar production of chemicals. Our results demonstrate that microplastic particles operate both chemically and physically REFERENCES AND NOTES on larval fish performance and development. 1. N.S.Lewis,D.G.Nocera,Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.U.S.A.103, 15729-15735(2006). lobal plastic production is estimated to be years,where they break down into smaller pieces 2. N.S.Lewis,D.G.Nocera,The Bridge 46,41-47(2015); www.nae.edu/Publications/Bridge/140630/140646.aspx, about 300 million metric tons(MMT)an- owing to ultraviolet radiation,physical forces,and 3. R.E.Blankenship et al.,Science 332,805-809(2011). nually and is increasing by 20 MMT per hydrolysis(4).Hence,plastic particles continue to 4. S.Licht et al.,Int.J.Hydrogen Energy 26,653-659(2001). year(1).As a direct consequence of the accumulate as small fragments(hereafter termed 5. F.F.Abdi et al.,Nat.Commun.4,2195(2013). massive use of plastics in modern society, microplastics, and defined as <5 mm in size) 6. C.R.Cox,J.Z. 1111,14057-14061(2014)..11 D.0.Nocera,T.Buonassisi,Proc.Natl. U.S.A.Acad.Sci.U . plastic waste is accumulating,especially in and throughout the world's oceans(4,5).Plastic de- 7. J.Luo et al.,Science 345,1593-1596(2014). around urbanized areas,where it often ends up bris can affect marine biota both physically(e.g., 8. T.R.Cook et al.,Chem.Rev.110,6474-6502(2010). in waterways and is ultimately transported into by blocking the alimentary tract when ingested) 9. T.Zhang,Science 350,738-739(2015). the ocean(2,3).Because plastic polymers show (6) and chemically(e.g.,by leaching toxic pollu- 10. H.Li et al.,Science 335,1596(2012). 11. K.P.Nevin,T.L.Woodard,A.E.Franks,Z.M.Summers, minimal biological degradation,they remain in tants that are part of the plastics or that have D.R.Lovley,mBio 1,e00103-10(2010). the environment for hundreds to thousands of been absorbed by the plastic)(7). 12. S.Cheng,D.Xing,D.F.Call,B.E.Logan,Environ.Sci.Technol. To date,passive ingestion of plastic microdebris 43,3953-3958(2009). by filter feeders is known to occur,but the eco- 13. C.Liu et al.,Nano Lett.15,3634-3639(2015). Department of Ecology and Genetics,Limnology,Uppsala 14. E.M.Nichols et al.,Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.U.S.A.112, University,Uppsala,Sweden logical significance of ingestion is poorly under- 11461-11466(2015). *Corresponding author.Email:oona.lonnstedt@ebc.uu.se stood(3,4,8).There is increasing concern that SCIENCE sciencemag.org 3 JUNE 2016•vol.352 ISSUE 6290 1213 RESEARCH i REPORTS A 48 a B 190 a C 70 _ - C 46 E 180 60 T 1 a) 44 r,: a E777, ab 13' 1 1170 € `' 50 b 0 42 i p. ,. :; a) 40 «.;` b E 160 Mc, 40 a 1 ,o a� 30 0 38 x c150 "w' _ E_ ID 36 E y • a 140A 76 20 wYv:F 3415 ,.:, ' F- 130 - 10 '.z: 32 ,•‘:.4. � a zyo; i„:. , 30 120 Control Average High Control Average High Control Average High Fig.1.Fish behavior when exposed to polystyrene microplastic particles.Mean(±SE)number of(A)lines crossed(a measure of activity),(B)total distance moved(mm),and(C)total time spent inactive(s)for 10-day-old P.fluviatilis were affected by microplastic concentration(control,average,or high). VD the accumulation of microplastic waste could plastic particles (90 gm): (i) no microplastics m3). Fish across all treatments were fed the N affect the functioning of marine ecosystems;how- (0 particles/m3),(ii)average microplastic con- same concentrations of newly hatched Arte- ever,the mechanisms by which effects will man- centration (10,000 particles/m3), and (ii) high mia sp.nauplii twice daily(ad libitum,75,000 a) ifest have not been identified.This is especially microplastic concentration (80,000 particles/ nauplii/m3). = true for eggs,embryos, and larvae To assess direct chemical effects of of aquatic organisms,which are par- A ®Control ❑Average ❑High polystyrene microplastics on fish,we ticularly vulnerable to water-borne collected fertilized egg strands of P. 61 pollutants owing to their limited 0.2 b b b b b b b fluviatilis from natural populations in o ability to regulate their internal en- 2 0 __ ___ __ the Baltic Sea and placed them in m vironment(9). In particular, early o e£ 1000-m1 glass aquaria that contained E w,i3i> one of the three microplastic concen- life stages of fishes are under strong a, -0.2 ,'; p selection, driven by high rates of _” trations and filtered estuarine water '` (19).We then monitored the number predator-induced mortality(10,11). • -0.4 <s�_3 ai Hence,selection is often mediated moo :_°: a of successful hatching events over a c -0.6 €.<..:; by antipredator behaviors and prox- L 3-week period(N=5 with 58 to 60 eggs •rn c.)imate factors (e.g.,feeding history a -0 8 a per replicate aquaria). Overall, suc- and growth)(12).To better under- cessful hatching rates of fish were stand potential effects of microplas- B 0.2 significantly related to microplastic tic waste on the vulnerable younger g b b b b b b concentration [analysis of variance E life stages of fish,we examined how 8 0 g,:. -- am -- -- (ANOVA): F2,12 = 19.4, P = 0.0002]. o natural levels of microplastic par- E `s b Fish that were not exposed to micro- ticles affected the development,be- c -0.2 uaY'.f • plastics during egg development had c havior,and survival of Eurasian perch 2 high hatching rates typical of most o (Perca,fluviatilis). is -0.4 «"°f teleosts[e.g.,(20)],with 96%success- a C iE.tg The abundance of microplas- a, af.W:; fully hatching compared to eggs that o tic particles on the Swedish coast c-0.6 a were exposed to polystyrene parti- Q is in the range of 150 to 2400 r a des.Fish in the high-concentration particles/m3 to 68,000 to 102,000 0 -0'8 treatment had the lowest hatching particles/m3, with average values C 4.5 a rates, at 81%,whereas fish exposed being 7000 to 10,000 plastic partides/ N to average microplastic concentra- m3, based on zooplankton sam- >- 3.5 tions displayed hatching rates of 89%. ° pling(net mesh size 10 to 300µm) � . This suggests that polystyrene par- :.� (13,14).Many juvenile fish are likely '-, 2.5 ; t`5�: tides may be chemically affecting to encounter high concentrations of E ;: b larvae in both average and high': b centrations, as exposure con- microplastic debris in their nursery S 1.5 .'.., xP potentially habitats, as microplastic pollutants a, „ i c reduces hatching rates of fertilized often accumulate in shallow coastal m 0.5 ,,MA c c c c c c P.fluviatilis eggs. habitats (13-15). Polystyrene is one 0 ; -- �� -- Behavior is a crucial determinant of the five major types of micro- -0.5 Conspecific Heterospecific skin Seawater control for essential fitness correlates (e.g., plastic debris found in the marine chemical alarm cue extract overall health), such as growth, re- environment(3,16),and ingestion production,and survival(21).To in- of polystyrene particles has been Fig.2.Innate responses to olfactory threat cues are affected by expo- vestigate if exposure to microplastic found to alter behaviors (17) and sure to microplastic particles. Fish exposed to high concentrations of particles during the first weeks of disturb the fat metabolism in fresh- microplastic particles did not significantly alter their proportional change in development altered fish behavior, water fishes(18).Hence,in the cur- (A)activity,(B)area use(mm),or(C)freezing behavior after being exposed we measured activity rates[defined rent study,we used three different to a conspecific chemical alarm cue compared to the two controls[alarm cue as the number of lines crossed on a concentrations of polystyrene micro- from a heterospecific fish(flounder,Platichthys flesus)or water controls. grid(5 mm by 5 mm)present on the 1214 3 JUNE 2016•VOL 352 ISSUE 6290 sciencemag.org SCIENCE RESEARCH 1 REPORTS A 1.0 st 0.8 •- €' ",,k :,f',is?;:.I ,]s"`,X.•; x'dssu; 4s;y,pfi;3«.<:! • 0.6 _- --F-- :. i r lab s;£:.�y S,cy',f„a<:%F:y,' €i:. .`a£' ^gam :t"�'p` :�� ,.`' > �� .� >�.'' s�E�m'.� s.,. r:r.z.��H'. "t;`. s^;a^.,.ya .€.,> ,� :�•,0 3 L ♦— .:si:'li;j;Ss£§ .iso n#s�s� :> .),vs ... �: : w>:. k ♦ `; 'R y 4€ : .; "tib:.. ':,. Control `;.« i.,;,4:Ail , :111;;:.“. ::4764101;!� ii.' �;S,rii":F'Si i3,:'?`,�>g�y�'.C.' O• 0.4 ®..- .:p,,,';'„1SJ �`: ,Ai `...''' bSw. G<.>M$JY3a l ^:5 �'�'oiFSS"n -�---Averageo �� u <;::M€ a �, y ?,101424%%;:,14i1";'';'. • \ :v-'I L Q a. 0.2 M . >YLS '.S""Y. '1 z .yLf :i,' �. �s , 4 V 0.0 Nish ke:A% 3 N ax s PO;)::,•:44,%,,, , -Ni.,,,,.. 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 :::r;.;,-H;"`:� a;:r . .. Time(hours) <: ;a':::, 'y�.9L:. p 4 B 9.5a C 9 - a �. .:«;,: ^if£ ; 8.7 b -o 5 - ):121.,,,,&;,,:,:," :,,,, _ n, a� cNi x 4 - z w,'' ., 3a a� 8.3 �;. a� Y ., , - ;3 s ti _ : k: m ay �kG5'f : ' £y/' RY:y'.-„,,,, eControl Average High Control Average High ,< ' < a) u Fig. 3. Exposure to microplastic particles affects survival,growth,and mean number(±SE)of ingested microplastic particles. (A)Survival curves (Kaplan-Meier plot)of 10-day-old P.fluviatilis larvae from the three different microplastic treatments.(B)Standard length and(C)number of microplastic particles found in stomach contents were also affected by treatment.Juvenile pike[Esox lucius(D)]are a common and natural piscivore that preys on larval perch.Larvae u exposed to the different treatments had consumed varying amounts of microplastic particles:no microplastics(E and F);average amounts of microplastics a=i (G and H);or high amounts of microplastics(I and J). o b. bottom of the aquarium],total distance moved microplastic pollutants.By recording behaviors of vidual survival rates of 2-week-old larvae from V. (total distance fish swam over the 3-min obser- fish from the three different microplastic treat- the different treatments when exposed to a nat- E vation period),and the amount of time fish were ments before and after the injection of an alarm ural and common predator on larval perch,ju- ° immobile(s)using standardized protocols(N= cue,we could determine innate fear responses venile pike(Esox lucius,31±1.5 mm total length). cs 36)(12,22).We found clear effects of exposure of naive 10-day-old P.fluviatilis (N= 12).We Survival of fish was monitored every 2 to 6 hours 8 to polystyrene microplastics(average and high found a strong influence of microplastic expo- over a 24-hour period in mesocosms simulating o concentrations) on behavior of 10-day-old fish sure and concentration on the response of fish to natural conditions(N=45 to 47)(19).We found 3 larvae[2-factor multivariate analysis of variance olfactory threat cues(2-factor MANOVA:F12,291= that microplastic exposure during development �O (MANOVA):F6,180=8.47,P<0.00001;Fig.1,A to 6.59,P<0.00001;Fig.2,A to C).Fish reared under influenced survival rates of P.fluviatilis(x22,0,05= C].There was a nonsignificant effect of exposure control conditions displayed lowered activity rates 34.02,P< 0.0001).Survival of fish larvae was tank on behaviors of individual fish (2-factor (2-factor ANOVA:F4,97=29.72,P<0.0001;Fig.2A), highest and most similar to natural survival rates MANOVA; F39,267 = 0.99, P = 0.49). Hatched decreases in distance moved(2-factor ANOVA: at this life stage [e.g., (20)]when reared under larvae that were reared under control conditions F4,97=23.44,P<0.0001;Fig.2B),and a greater control conditions,with 46%still alive after 24 hours had higher activity rates(2-factor ANOVA:F2,92= incidence of freezing behavior(e.g.,time immo- (Fig.3A).Fish reared in average microplastic con- 7.24,P=0.0012;Fig.1A),swam greater distances bile: 2-factor ANOVA:F4,97=12.94,P< 0.0001; centrations had a lower survival rate,with 66% (2-factor ANOVA:F2,92=5.14,P=0.0076;Fig.1B), Fig.2C)in response to conspecific alarm cues. consumed after 24 hours.Larvae reared in high and spent less time motionless(2-factor ANOVA: Although there was a tendency of fish reared in microplastic concentrations had the lowest sur- F2,92= 28.98,P< 0.00001;Fig.1C)compared to the average microplastic concentrations to dis- vival rates,with 100%consumed by pike within fish that were reared under microplastic treatment play weaker threat responses compared to con- 24 hours.Observed survival patterns in the cur- conditions. trol fish,they still displayed significantly stronger rent study emphasize the importance of behav Early life-history stages of many aquatic or- threat responses to chemical alarm cues corn- ioral responses to threat cues,as larval fish failing ganisms are inherently vulnerable to predators, pared to the two control cue treatments(hetero- to respond to conspecific alarm cues had threefold and an innate ability to detect predators is crit- specific skin extract and water controls;Tukey's (high microplastics=37 out of 45)higher mortality ical for survival (10-12). One way naïve prey HSD(honest significant difference)test P<0.02; rates compared to control larvae(no microplastics= avoid predators is through an innate response to Fig.2,A to C).In contrast,P.iuviat'ilis larvae reared 12 out of 47)in the first 10 hours after exposure to damage-released chemical alarm cues, and al- in high microplastic concentrations did not exhib- a predator(Fig.3A)(P<0.001). though the olfactory sense in larval fish is sen- it an antipredator response when exposed to Two weeks after hatching,total length(mm) sitive to changes in habitat composition(22)and threat cues compared to controls(Fig.2,A to C). differed significantly between fish exposed to the ocean chemistry(23), it is unknown if olfac- To assess more direct ecological effects of mi- different microplastic concentrations (2-factor tory threat responses are affected by exposure to croplastic exposure on fish,we measured indi- ANOVA:F2,45=17.16,P<0.0001;Fig.3B;N=20). SCIENCE sciencemag.org 3 JUNE 2016•VOL 352 ISSUE 6290 1215 RESEARCH J REPORTS Fish reared in the highest microplastic concentra- 10.W.C.Leggett,E.Deblois,Neth..1.Sea Res.32,119-134 25.G.Sundblad,U.Bergstrom,A.Sandstrom,P.Eklov,ICES J. tions were significantly smaller(8.35±0.07 mm) (1994). Mar.Sci.71,'672-680(2014). than fish reared in average concentrations(8.89± , , , v. r. ol. ,1-83(1989). 26.L.Ljunggren et al.,ICES J.Mar.Sci.67,1587-1595(2010). 12.11. K.0.M.M.Lonnstedt,BaileyED.M.HoudeI.McCormickAdMa,M.BiG.Meekan25 , 0.12 mm)or than those without exposure to mi- M.C.0.Ferrari,D.P.Chivers,Proc.Biol.Sci.279,2091-2098 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS croplastics(9.17±0.1 mm).There was also a sig- (2012). This study was financially supported by Uppsala University- nificant difference in the number of ingested 13. F.Noren,KIMO Sweden(2007). Campus Gotland and the Swedish Research Council microplastic particles between the three treat 14. F.Noren,K.Noren,K.Magnusson,Lens.Nostra Gotaland Rapp. Vetenskapsradet.All work reported herein was conducted in 52(2014). accordance with the guidelines for the care and use of animals in ments(2 factor ANOVA:F2,45=79.24,P<0.0001; 15. D.-H.Chae,I.-S.Kim.S.-K.Kim.Y.K.Song,W.J.Shim,Arch. research of the Swedish Board of Agriculture with approval by the Fig. 3C; N= 20). Larvae from the high micro- Environ.Contam.Toxicol.69,269-278(2015). Uppsala University Ethics Committee.We thank A.Nissling, 16. A.L.Andrady,M.A.Neal,Philos.Trans.R.Soc.London B Biol. plastics treatment had consumed an average of J.Sundin,G.Rosenqvist,M.Cunha,I.Wallin,R.Gydemo,and Sci.364,1977-1984(2009). L.Vallin for logistic support and A.Roswald,I.Lonnstedt,and 7.15 ± 1.2 polystyrene particles, with stomachs 17. K.Mattsson et al.,Environ.Sci.Technol.49,553-561 M.McCormick for comments and statistical advice.The data containing solely plastic particles. In contrast, (2015). reported in this paper are archived at the research database at fish from the average microplastics treatment 18.T.Cedervall,L.-A.Hansson,M.Lard,B.Frahm,S.Linse, Uppsala University and are also included in the online PLOS ONE 7,e32254(2012). consumed 1.4 ± 0.35 plastic particles but also 19. Materials and methods are available as supplementary supplementary materials. consumed the food source(Artemia sp.nauplii) materials on Science online. that was available at similar concentrations across 20.J.W.Treasurer,Environ.Biol.Fishes 8,3-16(1983). SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS all three treatments.Fish that were reared in water 21. B.R.Smith,D.T.Blumstein,Behay.Ecol.19,448-455 www.sciencemag.org/content/352/6290/1213/suppl/DC1 (2008). Materials and Methods that contained no microplastics only had Anemia .22.0.M.Lonnstedt,M.I.McCormick,D.P.Chivers, sp. nauplii in their stomachs (Fig. 3, E to J). M.C.0.Ferrari,J.Anim.Ecol.83,1178-1185(2014). • Figs.Si and S2 These results suggest that newly hatched larvae 23.D.L.Dixson,P.L.Munday,G.P.Jones,Ecol.Lett.13,68-75 .References(27-35) favor microplastic particles over the more na (2010). 16 November 2015;accepted 21 April 2016 0 24.C.M.Rochman et al.,Sci.Rep.5,14340(2015). 10.1126/science.aad8828 N tural food source of free-swimming zooplankton. N Other aquatic organisms have been found to a) both passively and actively ingest plastic waste 0 (8,24).Here it appears that larvae preferentially CELL R RROCRA INC o feed on plastic particles. Our results suggest that environmentally I relevant concentrations of microplastic particles Conversion of human fibroblasts a operate both chemically and physically on the • E early life stages of perch.Not only are crucial behaviors such as activity and feeding affected, into functional cardiomyocytes by C.) but innate responses to olfactory threat cues are •u impaired.Such loss of predator-avoidance behav- small molecules iors greatly increased predator-induced mortal- C ity rates of larvae. �,, 1y. 1.,2 6 .- Increases in microplasticpollution in the Bal- Nan Cao, Yu Huang, Jiashun Zheng,4'5C.Ian Spencer, Yu Zhang, Ji-Dong Fu, 0 P llaoming Nie,1'2 Min Xie,1'2 M.ingliang Zbang,l'2 Haixia Wang,l'2 Tianhua Ma,1,2 tic Sea and marked recruitment declines of the E. Tao Xu,1,2 Guilai Shi,1'2 Deepak Srivastava,1'S'4*Sheng Ding1,2*.j.. coastal keystone species(e.g.,perch and pike) ,.o have recently been observed(25).It has been sug- E gested that population decline is related to feed- Reprogramming somatic fibroblasts into alternative lineages would provide a promising o ing in the juvenile stage,where resource deficits source of cells for regenerative therapy.However,transdifferentiating human cells into specific homogeneous,functional cell types is challenging. Here we show that cardiomyocyte-like a) may have led to increased mortality (26). Our -0 cells can be generated by treating human fibroblasts with a combination of nine compounds c study suggests a potential driver for the observed o decreased recruitment rate and increased mor- that we term 9C.The chemically induced cardiomyocyte-like cells uniformly contracted and resembled human cardiomyocytes in their transcriptome,epigenetic,and electrophysiological 3 tality.If early life-history stages of other species o are similarly affected by microplastics,and this properties.9C treatment of human fibroblasts resulted in a more open-chromatin translates to increased mortality rates,the effects conformation at key heart developmental genes,enabling their promoters and enhancers to on aquatic ecosystems could be profound.Our bind effectors of major cardiogenic signals.When transplanted into infarcted mouse hearts, findings highlight ecologically important and pre- 9C-treated fibroblasts were efficiently converted to chemically induced cardiomyocyte-like viously underappreciated effects of microplastic cells.This pharmacological approach to lineage-specific reprogramming may have many particles that enter marine ecosystems and em- important therapeutic implications after further optimization to generate mature cardiac cells. phasize the need for new management strat- egies to control the release of microplastic waste dvances in reprogramming enable the fate over genetic methods:They are convenient to use, products. of a cell to be changed,with potential appli- can be efficiently delivered into cells,provide cations for regenerative therapy.Cardio- REFERENCES AND NOTES myocyt (CM)-llke cells can be reprogrammed 1. "Plastics-the Facts 2013;'Plastics Europe,Belgium from somatic fibroblasts by overexpression 1Gladstone Institute of Cardiovascular Disease,San (2013). of cardiacgenes in vitro 1 and in vivo 710, Francisco,CA 94158,USA. Department of Pharmaceutical 2. R.C.Thompson et al.,Science 304,838(2004). (-6) (5, ) Chemistry,University of California-San Francisco,San 3. M.A.Browne et al.,Proc.Biol.Sci.282,20142929(2015). However,efficiently transdifferentiating human Francisco,CA 94158,USA.3Department of Pediatrics, 4. C.J.Moore,Environ.Res.108,131-139(2008). noncardiac cells into highly functional CMs has University of California-San Francisco,San Francisco,CA 5. A.L.Andrady,Mar.Pollut.Bull.62,1596-1605(2011). 94158,USA.'Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, remained a major challenge(7,4,6).In contrast to 6. M.Cole et al.,Environ.Sc!.Technol.47,6646-6655 University of California-San Francisco,San Francisco,CA (2013). conventional reprogramming by genetic methods, 94158,USA.°California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, 7. C.M.Rochman,E.Hoh,B.T.Hentschel,S.Kaye,Environ.Sci. a chemical reprogramming approach introduces University of California-San Francisco,San Francisco,CA Technol.47,1646-1654(2013). small molecules that interact with and modulate 94158,USA.6Department of Medicine,Heart and Vascular 8. S.L.Wright,R.C.Thompson,T.S.Galloway,Environ.Pollut. endogenous factors in the starting cell type(e.g., Research Center,Case Western Reserve University, 178,483-492(2013). Cleveland,'OH 44106,USA. 9. R.Sussarellu et al.,Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.U.S.A.113, fibroblast)in the absence of target-cell type-specific *These authors contributed equally to this work.tCorresponding 2430-2435(2016). proteins.Small molecules have certain advantages author.-Email:sheng.ding@gladstone.ucsf.edu 1216 3 JUNE 2016•VOL 352 ISSUE 6290 sciencemag.org SCIENCE Environmentally relevant concentrations of microplastic *Avioilparticles influence larval fish ecology a F Oona M.Lonnstedt and Peter Eklov(June 2,2016) Science 352(6290), 1213-1216. [doi: 10.1126/science.aad8828] AAAS Editor's Summary Microplastic's triple threat The billions of tons of plastics that we release into the environment for the most part do not biodegrade.But they do degrade,breaking into ever smaller particles that end up in the oceans. Lonnstedt et al. show that the impacts of these microplastics are multifold(see the Perspective by Rochman).Eurasian perch larvae exposed to microplastics were less active,less responsive to predator cues,more likely to be eaten,and less likely to thrive—preferring to eat plastic rather than their natural prey. Science,this issue p. 1213; see also p. 1172 N a) t-y Li This copy is for your personal,non-commercial use only. ccs 0 Article Tools Visit the online version of this article to access the personalization and article tools: Q) http://science.sciencemag.org/content/352/6290/1213 Permissions Obtain information about reproducing this article: http://www.sciencemag.org/about/permissions.dtl b ct 0 O Science(print ISSN 0036-8075;online ISSN 1095-9203)is published weekly,except the last week in December,by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1200 New York Avenue NW,Washington,DC 20005.Copyright 2016 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science;all rights reserved. The title Science is a registered trademark of AAAS. Marine Environmental Research 84(2013)76-83 >'s w:<? r is Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect marina ��i SVC .C ai • i. . . ASN. Ms ot rA• 0: 1 y _ zosOto „. int"' 33 • Mane Environmental Research1 * fir F3tNJ'}S,P`....: +..i:'^1�..':ski#: f� Journal:home.pag..e: www.elsevier.com/Io:cate/m:arenvrev Tracking the sources and sinks of local marine debris in Hawaii Henry S. Carson a'*, Megan R. Lamson b., Davis Nakashima a, Derek Toloumu a,Jan Hafner c, Nikolai Maximenko C, Karla J. McDermid a a Marine Science Department,University of Hawaii at Hilo,200 W.•Kawili St.,Hilo,HI 96720,USA b Hawaii Wildlife Fund,P.O.Box 70,Volcano,HI 96785,USA `International Pacific Research Center,University of Hawaii at Manoa,1680 East-West Road,Honolulu,HI 96822,USA ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history: Plastic pollution has biological, chemical, and physical effects on marine environments and economic Received 14 July 2012 effects on coastal communities.These effects are acute on southeastern Hawai'i Island,where volunteers Received in revised form remove 16 metric tons of debris annually from a 15 km coastline.Although the majority is foreign-origin, 3 December 2012 a portion is locally-generated. We used floating debris-retention booms in two urban waterways to Accepted 4 December 2012 measure the input of debris from Hilo,the island's largest community,and released wooden drifters in nearby coastal waters to track the fate of that debris.In 205 days,30 kilograms of debris(73.6%plastic) Keywords: were retained from two watersheds comprising 10.2% of Hilo's developed land area. Of 851 wooden Plastics drifters released offshore of Hilo in four events,23.3%were recovered locally,1.4%at distant locations, Marine debris Hawaii and 6.5%on other islands.Comparisons with modeled surface currents and wind were mixed,indicating Drifters the importance of nearshore and tidal dynamics not included in the model.This study demonstrated that Retention booms local pollutants can be retained nearby,contribute to the island's debris-accumulation area,and quickly Ocean models contaminate other islands. Sources ©2012 Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved. Pathways Waste disposal 1. Introduction are threatened by marine debris, especially derelict fishing gear (Donohue et al.2001).Marine debris also affects the marine envi- Plastic pollution-in the marine environment impacts human ronment and human communities on the southeastern inhabited communities directly through reduced tourism income, increased islands.Residents are tied to the ocean,not only through a depen- cost of cleanup,threats to navigation and safety,contamination of dence on tourism and shipping,but also via aquatic activities(such food sources, loss of aesthetic value, and other public health as fishing,surfing,and canoeing)that are integral to their lifestyle hazards(reviewed in Thompson et al.2009).It impacts those same and culture. Near the southern end of the archipelago's largest communities indirectly by threatening marine organisms and island, Hawaii,lies Kamilo Point, an area famous for debris accu- habitats though entanglement and ingestion by invertebrates, mulation (Fig. 1). Since 2003, the Havvai'i Wildlife Fund (www. fishes, birds, turtles, and marine mammals, smothering of the wildhawaii.org) has removed an average of 16 metric tons of benthos, leaching of plasticizers, concentration of persistent debris per year from this 15 kilometer coastline. organic pollutants in seawater,changing the physical properties of The plastic debris at Kamilo consists of derelict fishing gear, sediment,and the transport of organisms via rafting(reviewed in miscellaneous large items, and a high, but patchily distributed, Cole et al.2011,Gregory 2009). concentration of polyethylene and polypropylene fragments These effects are particularly acute in the Hawaiian Archipelago, (Carson et al.2011).The majority of identifiable items appear to be in part because of its location proximal to the major debris accu- of non-Hawaii origin,as evidenced by heavily degraded or fouled mulation zone of the North Pacific Gyre (Howell et al. 2012). surfaces,foreign-language labels,markings,and logos on items not In the northwestern portion of the island chain, the sensitive labeled for sale in the United States, or aquaculture and fishing habitats of the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument industry equipment not in use on the islands(e.g.Ebbesmeyer et al. 2012). However, some items do appear to be of local origin, as evidenced by fresh,unfouled surfaces,and commonly used brand * Corresponding author.Tel.:+1 808 933 3880;fax:+1 808 974 7693. names. The local-origin debris is unlikely to have been littered E-mail address:hcarson@hawaii.edu(H.S.Carson). directly on the coastline because the area is difficult to access and 0141-1136/$—see front matter©2012 Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres.2012.12.002 H.S.Carson et al./Marine Environmental Research 84(2013)76-83 77 ri\T w p a "z t ,' '' s >',4I, � V 50 km n r • : liawai'i Isla d 'x e , :,/,.4..,:, • vi' -.z,,i`0: v.4 "` it' # `'"'iSi$n r; ..v``...z•release K=u1ua-Kona releases 11'>, Ka! a.K tia` '? 59°W 157°W 155'1v '�: ,,f.. f %s ;1-,.- ,' ...A' l'ohoiki "k -21"N2"< r s - : : ' «y it s y s 19 N ' idi/Kamilo debris accumulation area Kaulana release • Fig 1. Map of the study areas around Hawai'i Island,and inset picture of typical debris accumulation on Kamilo Point. not a tourist destination.Therefore,the same hydrodynamic forces flows into Waiakea Pond. The pond is a brackish-water, tidally- which deposit large amounts of foreign debris on this coastline may influenced water body that opens to Hilo Bay 1.5 km north of the also carry local debris.We hypothesize that prevailing northeast- boom. erly trade winds, and their associated surface currents (Jia et al. The second boom (#2 in Fig. 2) was placed in the''Alenaio 2012), make the east coast of Hawai'i Island the most likely Stream watershed, which drains a smaller portion of urban Hilo, source of local debris to the Kamilo area. including the southern end of the downtown commercial district. Although plastic pollution from distant locations in the Pacific The watershed area extends 187.3 km2 up the slopes of the Mauna poses a great threat to Hawai'i(Brainard et al.2001,Donohue 2005, Loa volcano; however,only the developed lower 4.3 km2(Parham Ebbesmeyer et al. 2012), this pollution is also more difficult to et al.2008)is likely to produce significant synthetic debris runoff. prevent with local action than Hawai'i-sourced debris.In this study, The boom crossed a six-meter-wide stone flood-control channel as we test whether or not waste from the island's large population the stream empties into Waiakea Pond.The bay entrance is located centers washes up on the island's main debris accumulation areas. 1.2 km east of the boom. Specifically,we investigate the following two questions: The booms collected debris from only 10.2%of Hilo's developed land area, representing approximately 4,400 people. Northern 1)What is the amount,composition,and timing of debris reach- portions of the city are drained by the Wailuku River, a large ing the ocean from the island's largest population center, as watershed (653.2 km2) of forested land that experiences extreme measured by floating debris retention booms in two urban flows during frequent storm events which would be likely to waterways? destroy attempted boom placements with the force of water and 2)What are the pathways of Hilo debris and debris from other drifting logs.The majority of runoff from the downtown commer- island areas once it reaches the ocean,as traced by drifters and cial district reaches the bay via a decentralized network of under- simulated by ocean models? ground storm drains which are difficult to sample effectively.To the south of the study area, the Keaukaha area is also drained via groundwater and decentralized channels that would be impossible 2. Design of experiments to sample effectively for debris. These logistical considerations prevented more of Hilo's drainage area from being studied. The 2.1. Debris-retention Booms boom placements at the point where the two study watersheds empty into Waiakea Pond are advantageous because standing One floating debris-retention boom was placed in each of two water supports the booms during low flow while dissipating some waterways in Hilo (Fig. 2), the largest population center on the of the energy from high flow events. island of Hawai'i(43,263 people as of the 2010 census).The first(#1 The booms were anchored to either side of the two drainage in Fig.2)was placed in the Wailoa River watershed,which drains channels,and remained in place for 205 days from September 2011 the predominantly residential southern portion of the city. The to April 2012.They consisted of flotation chambers extending about watershed area is 255.4 km2 extending to the top of the massive 0.3 m above the water surface (Fig. 2), and a solid, impermeable Mauna Loa volcano; however, due to the highly porous nature of curtain weighted with chain extending about 0.3 m below the the basaltic rock,surface runoff only becomes a relevant factor in water surface.Debris was removed twice a week during the study the movement of debris in the lower, developed 10.0 km2 of the period, with additional checks after storm events. To collect the watershed (Parham et al. 2008). The boom spanned a 25-meter- debris, the booms were detached from one shoreline and pulled wide concrete flood-control channel at the mouth of the river as it across to encircle the debris close to the other shoreline where it 78 H.S.Carson et al./Marine Environmental Research 84(2013)76-83 itk ,..w,„e,,t44",,,,,pill • ' p .:1144.,,,r44N;;"!fik*:‘. O." i{ y r WWW© Lr aR.. ax '� � y, r,'f , Ofe 00 000,1 %tt..' `why k'' xx ... '_ --aaY,r M x�� „3a:� ft �ss i �e .,,x,� g } .,,q t ,$•'<'-' ,A,rAi,:t,f-7--;,-7,A:5',Nsu*.-ezgiewiati4. ,,-,,„,,A%*,,itteA',mt'44A45toev..',a,,A' 1.-- --,,,:t.-.7- ‘, P.- '?rr4,'. • „ t en��<4; .py. 4 i1,w8 a SA'i F • >+0 k1ft....,, '.t `=.u c ''' yy. �r ilk '''':s''''''::".1.:: '' �' I.Wailoa River mBoom Bo '�:.rts "ix � • ��.�` ..��,�. ��k�� ,,,, 3� '"x x ... .�..?'�?'� xd .. . S --w, �� t �, y,iAc 3'..a. 2.iAlenaio Stream Boom riiiR d� c`w;�., Ys ,.••a rz .} ^R,• � ? -..' i. ty„, 3.\Vaukea Pond 114 �� x 5r *'"f•' '; -i • ,," 4..Keaukaha Area »x.�'�`; � "'� - '.�* T ` '. a.•a : s Y S.Downtown Hilo $'< Y a n. c # " ,, ; F { �a `: f �x a G.WailHilo River ' krni„: � s� �- �� >� ��s s W.,;17, 7.Hilo Bay 3 '�* x xa. , • '.. � � >y fog£,a"rcx'l"-.4•4.,a • � aa' �.a dF�aS Q-7- *k_ &.3k"_is S ',>a Vis.ar i � . ,,,., x roa` i.,. wee.; ;;i:x.:1,1\ ‘..7'-, -,.: :.,4 . 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Vi n,� Y,fir #3 .'4'Y"� s 'f • •5 (SI} y., 1L � = L ! j e,, .r �% 3 k w".T4. k40-',.,:14,W1,,,,,A :i`'ly ¢x„' `..w'� "°'fin ` „,-P1�b,, " Ailt . _<��. ci;sbas.Cfy�%�1.41 7° aT:X°'. � ',..1.4f.,,,,-,- t�t' �„ r��t • �,r�, gj „:':";,,,,,,,,l''' ��'�'fir'' /,x !a, ,'a .....i YR .3.. .a. 'aiaR..i'.".3.... :tr Fig 2.Satellite photo of the study area in Hilo,Hawai'i Island,and pictures of the Wailoa River Boom(left)and'Alenaio Stream Boom(right)with typical debris shown in the foreground. could be easily removed with a dip net.In the laboratory,captured 2.2, Drifter Experiments items were separated from organic debris, rinsed, and then dried for weighing and classification into one of ten categories(Table 1). Degradable wooden drifters were constructed to approximate We have no quantitative data on the efficiency of debris capture by the movement of Hawaii-sourced debris.The drifters were made of the booms.Visual observations showed that the booms were most pine blocks approximately 7.6 cm long, 8.9 cm wide, and 3.8 cm efficient at capturing high-buoyancy items such as plastic bottles, high, branded with a message including release location code, and could not always retain low-buoyancy items such as plastic contact phone number,and email address.In seawater,the blocks bags,especially during high flow conditions. initially floated with approximately 1 cm of windage,which was We used linear regression to test fora relationship between the reduced to almost zero after several hours of water absorption.A timing of plastic captures and local precipitation, as measured by test block placed in a bucket of seawater remained positively National Weather Service rainfall gauges. Cumulative rainfall that buoyant for approximately 80 days before sinking. occurred between debris samplings was compared to the total We released 851 blocks at the same Hilo Bay location (19° 45' weight of debris found in the booms during the corresponding 06"N,155°03'51"W)in two deployments,one in October 2011 and sampling period. another in March 2012.To assess the effect of hypothetical along- Table 1 Dry weight of debris captured by two floating retention booms in Hilo,HI,USA over 205 days.Numerals in parenthesis below the weights are the number of items of that category."Misc."=miscellaneous items that do not belong in the other categories,including plastic items and items made of multiple materials;PET=polyethylene tere- phthalate;PE=polyethylene. boom plastic items(kg) aluminum glass mist. total PET bottles cigarettes PE packaging bags cups lids footwear styrofoam (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) Wailoa River 1.79(69) 0.34(1004) 0.80 0.43(50) 0.50(15) 0.15(1) 0.76 0.13 0.01 5.60 10.52 'Alenaio Stream 3.30(]21) 0.07(263) 1.05 1.83(121) 1.05(53) 2.04(8) 0.63 1.08 2.08 6.29 19.43 Total 5.09(190) 0.41(1267) 1.85 2.26(171) 1.55(68) 2.19(9) 1.39 1.21 2.09 11.89 29.95 H.S.Carson et al./Marine Environmental Research 84(2013)76-83 79 shore jets,induced by tides,each event was split into two tide-state different islands,and limited instrumental power,make reasonable releases: at slack-before-flood.(low tide) and at slack-before-ebb the use of the readily-available SCUD model as a framework for the (high tide). Prevailing westward flow around Hawaiian Islands project. (Jia et al.2012)reduces the probability of debris transport from the The virtual release point for simulations was moved 24 km west coast of Hawai'i Island to the Kamilo accumulation area.To offshore of the drifter release point to conform to the model space verify this hypothesis, we also released drifters near the island's of SCUD.10,000 virtual drifters were randomly placed within the 1/ second-largest population center at Kailua-Kona. We placed 230 4°squared grid cell offshore of Hilo Bay on the October and March drifters offshore of Kailua-Kona(19°40'2"N,156°2'15"W)in two drifter release dates.Their trajectories were computed for 14 days tide-state releases in October 2011.Two additional release locations to encompass the approximate period of first recoveries for the not near population centers were used to help describe the wooden drifters. Duplicate simulations were run for each release movement of debris around the island.We deployed 236 drifters including a 2% windage factor to compare with the previous offshore of Pohoiki, near the eastern tip of the island, and 230 simulations. blocks offshore of Kaulana, near the southern tip of the island (Fig.1),each in two tide-state releases in October 2011.All releases 3. Results and Discussion were made from watercraft approximately 1 km offshore,because we were not interested in studying surf zone debris-movement 3.1. Debris-retention Booms processes. The telephonehotline and email account were monitored In 205 days,the two booms captured 29.9 kg of anthropogenic continuously after releases to receive reports of recoveries. debris,73.6%of which was plastic by weight(Table 1).The largest Members of the public that located blocks were asked to report the defined category was polyethylene terephthalate (PET, "#1") time, date, and location of the recovery event, as well as block bottles, which comprised 17% of the total by weight. They were release code and whether or not they removed the block from the followed by disposable plastic bags (7.5%), footwear (7.3%), glass shore(to prevent duplicate reports).First reports from certain areas (7.0%), and polyethylene (PE) packaging(6.2%).A large portion of were used to calculate maximum drift speeds from release to the total debris was miscellaneous items, including sports equip- destination,and subsequent recoveries were assumed to have been ment, fishing gear, toiletries, household items, and fabrics. The beached nearby and not recovered immediately. most numerous category was cigarette butts(1267 items),although they only made up 1.4%of the debris by weight.Over a third(35.6%) 2.3. Ocean Model of Surface Currents of the material included plastic,aluminum,and glass packaging for which recycling facilities are readily available. The SCUD (Surface CUrrents from Diagnostics) model was The accumulation of debris at the booms was significantly developed at the International Pacific Research Center (IPRC) to related (p < 0.001) to precipitation events in a linear regression assess surface velocities using global,near-real time satellite data of (Fig. 3), although rainfall did not explain the variation in debris altimetric sea level anomaly and scaterometric vector wind weight collected to the extent that might be expected given that (Maximenko and Hafner 2010).Sea level anomaly,referenced to the surface runoff is the most likely transport-mechanism to water- mean dynamic topography found in Maximenko et al.(2009),was ways. Only 37% of the variation in total debris weight collected used to compute absolute geostrophic velocity and wind to assess could be explained by variation in rainfall. However, if littering Ekman currents. Geographically-varying coefficients of the model rates are more or less constant in time (Seco Pon and Becherucci were tuned using trajectories of almost 15,000 satellite-tracked 2012), the first precipitation event after a.dry period is likely to drifting buoys of the Surface Velocity Program and Global Drifter carry a disproportionate amount of debris compared to subsequent Program (http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/dac/index.php). Model rainfall events,regardless of their magnitude,that occur before new velocities are calculated daily,on a 1/4°global grid.The accuracy of litter can accumulate(Moore et al.2011). the model deteriorates near shore due to higher errors in satellite The amount of debris collected at each boom did not correspond data and increased complexity of dynamics.It is challenging to use to the land area drained by the waterway.The Wailoa River drains the SCUD model to assess the movement of a wooden block,whose over twice the developed land area as'Alenaio Stream,but collected design is very different from the drifters employed by the Global half the debris(Table 1).Differing land-use within the urban area is Drifter Program.However,SCUD currents were found informative the most likely explanation(Seco Pon and Becherucci 2012),with to trace such differently shaped instruments as the whale-tracking gear, operated by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric . 3.5- —400 Administration's (NOAA) Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale r2=0.373 Sanctuary,and the experimental profiling float(during its visits to 3.0- 4 p<0.001 the ocean surface) of the US National Aeronautics and Space 1 300 Administration's (NASA) Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Specific to 2.5- ;; — marine debris,the solution of the statistical version of the model 20- ,,. b corresponds satisfactorily to the distribution of plastic fragments in .E -200 open waters (Maximenko et al. 2012). Additionally, SCUD was 1.s found helpful in simulating the motion of heterogeneous tsunami Q • debris from Japan,including its circulation in the North Pacific and 1.0- Iii, ;; —100 landing on shorelines of different countries(Maximenko and Haf- . , ' ' ner, unpublished data). Despite the limited applicability of the 0 5-44 9 SCUD model to the motion of wooden blocks in the nearshore area, 0.0 1:1T15 'Q_,D, , •■'':'• ••• i7 un 0 the overall simplistic formulation of the drifter exchange between September October November December January February March Fig 3.Total anthropogenic debris (filled diamonds, solid lines) at debris retention booms in two watersheds and accumulated rainfall(open squares,dashed lines)in 1 Model results available at: http://iprc.soest.hawaii.edu/news/marine_and_ between monitoring events at the booms. The 12 and p-values are from a linear tsunami_debris/IPRC_tsunami_debris_models.phpl. regression between accumulated debris and rainfall at each sampling. • 80 H.S.Carson et al./Marine Environmental Research 84(2013)76-83 higher littering rates possible in the downtown commercial district, uninhabited Kaho'olawe (5 blocks). The Maui recoveries, in partially drained by the 'Alenaio Stream, compared to residential particular,were spread over the entire island,although a majority districts.Because of the potential variation in litter by specific land-. were encountered in the Makena (22 blocks) and Kahikinui (10 use,it is difficult to calculate the total input of debris from an urban blocks) portions of the southern coastline. The first recovery, at area on the basis of two retention booms. However, under the Hana on the eastern tip of Maui,occurred eight days after release. reasonable assumption that littering rates do not vary significantly This corresponds to a 23 cm s-1 mean drift speed.The first recovery with season(Seco Pon and Becherucci 2012),the booms captured on the north coast of Lana'i occurred 10 days after release(30 cm debris at a rate of 53.3 kg per year.Extrapolating that collection rate s-1 drift speed). from 10.2%of the city's land area to the entire city yields more than The two March 2012 releases from Hilo Bay had similar 500 kg of marine debris produced each year for a city of over 43,000 outcomes, although they did not match the results of the earlier people.This estimate does not include litter that is blown into the releases.A large proportion of both the low-tide(51.5%)and high- ocean by wind, or litter directly deposited into the marine envi- tide(46.8%)releases were retained within the bay,recovered on the ronment on beaches or from boats. bay's southern Keaukaha coastline(Fig.2)as soon as two days after There are many reasons why that rough calculation may be release. Only thirteen blocks from the high-tide release were a significant underestimate of debris produced, and chief among recovered outside the bay. One block drifted north to the north- them is the inefficiency of capture by the booms.During high flow ernmost tip of the island, and the other twelve drifted south, events that are common in Hilo,we observed low-buoyancy items reaching as far as Kamilo Point near South Point(Fig.4). such as plastic bags slide underneath the booms and avoid capture. Releases from the island's other major population center, Estimates of the amount of high-buoyancy items such as capped Kailua-Kona, had no reported recoveries. Both releases from PET bottles are probably more accurate, as they seemed to be Pohoiki on the eastern tip of the island were recovered locally retained on the surface even during high-flow conditions.Floating (within 10 km)in large numbers,49.6%and 37.4%for the low-and retention booms with subsurface netting anchored to the bottom high-tide events, respectively (Table 2).Thirteen blocks from the would perform better at both quantifying debris and preventing its high-tide release traveled southwest and were found at the major entry into the ocean. Such devices were not possible at these debris-accumulation area at Kamilo Point(Fig.4).Only four drifters locations due to risk of sea turtle entanglement and other threats to were reported from the Kaulana releases at the southern tip of the wildlife. island. Two each from the high- and low-tide releases were Several studies have attempted to quantify marine debris inputs encountered on the island of Lana'i.In contrast to other drift block from stormwater runoff using a variety of capture devices,but few recoveries on Lanai, these were all found 61 or more days after are published in the primary literature (reviewed in Ryan et al. release.These blocks,drifting at a considerably slower speed(5 cm! 2009). Our impermeable curtains across entire drainage channels s)than other Lana'i recoveries,could have taken an offshore path were better suited to prevent buoyant debris from entering the through the field of eddies which often form in the lee of Hawai'i ocean in moderate flows than they were to quantify all debris Island(Jia et al.2012). inputs accurately under a variety of conditions.Sampling a portion The drifter results show that buoyant pollution from Hawai'i of the stream with fine-mesh netting,as did Moore et al.(2011)in Island's largest population center can take a variety of paths.Tidal Los Angeles,would provide more accurate estimates of input rates, cycles or other variations that occur on the timescale of hours can especially for micro-debris in high flow regimes. cause strong dispersion of blocks released together, or result in completely different trajectories. Hilo Bay drift blocks traveled 3.2. Drifter Experiments northwest,quickly beaching on three other islands,and they were also retained locally,washing up at local beach parks after a short Of the 1547 wood-block drifters released at four locations residence in the bay. Although only one drifter out of over 800 around the island, 387 (25%) were reported recovered. Of those released was recovered at Kamilo, this block establishes the drift recovered,302(78%)were found within 25 km of the release point. path for Hilo debris to beach at the island's debris-accumulation The remaining 85(22%)were found at distant locations on Hawaii area. The same path was also demonstrated in two steps - Hilo Island or on one of three other Hawaiian islands (Table 2, Fig.4). Bay blocks found at Pohoiki near the eastern tip of the island,and The two October 2011 releases from Hilo Bay had markedly blocks released at Pohoiki found at Kamilo (Fig. 4). Ongoing different outcomes. No recoveries were made from the low-tide experiments carried out while this manuscript was in review release, whereas 24.3% of the blocks released at high-tide were support the Hilo to Kamilo pathway.Six of 200 blocks released from recovered on the islands of Maui(42 blocks),Lanai(8 blocks),and Hilo Bay in late October 2012 have been recovered at Kamilo or Table 2 Wood-block drifter releases and reported recoveries in the Hawaiian Islands. release recovery location tide number date total Hawaii Island Maui Lana'i Kaho'olawe local distant Hilo Bay 1 low 220 10/24/11 0.0% high , 226 24.3% 18.6% 3.5% 2.2% Hilo Bay 2 low 200 03/23/12 51.5% 51.5% high 205 53.2% 46.8% 63% Pohoiki(East Point) low , 121 10/24/11 60.3% 49.6% 10.7% high 115 37.4% 37.4% Kaulana(South Point) low 115 10/27/11 1.7% 1.7% high 115 1.7% 1.7% Kailua-Kona low 115 10/26/11 0.0% high 115 0.0% total 1547 25.0% 19.5% 1.7% 2.7% 0.8% 0.3% H.S.Carson et al./Marine Environmental Research 84(2013)76-83 81 3 fir,.. along this coastline at press time, with no recoveries elsewhere. 4A1 i„.I.4.•3 ::,.'.'4,!—-------., is N The eastern half of the island, including Hilo, remains the most ,,`_ W 'w '{ 'zf4''' Hams`� probable source of the local debris that arrives at Kamilo. 1.4na i.a,; 2 . it aui'=`..;` R:a:,+ ._._.„ 50 km r 4,l .,,``, No drift blocks were recovered from the Kailua-Kona releases, 1 nlakena'22 {ci.:: • ..',,:,,,,',,101,..,,,12_22.,,,,"' '<;r and only four were recovered from Kaulana releases.The paucity of k 4•---.... ._ - ._.,,1� recoveries fo'r blocks released on the leeward(i.e.westward)side of �1 `_' � the island is not surprising. The same prevailing currents that .Kaho`©Iatise --,,`', ` sweep debris from east Hawaii westward would send west Hawaii \; 1...---'`N\ debris toward open water and keep leeward beaches relatively t ;),.,.,. �, clean.This finding matches the observation of larval dispersal by i �`` ` direct detection of parent-offspring pairs in reef fish on Hawaii \ \ ,k ~ �.' Island (Christie et al. 2010). Parents located on the eastern and ..:'res..', r( �\ southern coasts of the island seeded recruits to the western coast, \ \ \\\\\\\ '' Ott �` but the reverse was not detected. i1 `ltiaa< nAwThe 75%of blocks not reported recovered could have traveled to> F`. "',"'' `a'}`11u a variety of destinations.SCUD model results(see below and Fig.5) , ' •�/ show manycould have been advected awayfrom the islands into r v.,.;,., "-" may the open ocean. These drifters will likelydegrade or sink within •Hilo Bay October €46 .- ::... ;':?: p g s-.:: months. Others mayhave landed on seldom-visited parts of the 0 Hilo Bay March(405) •1'ohoiki(3ctober(236) k,. 1 4--•....--:.. state such as much of the coastline of Kaho'olawe Island. Others •Kaulana October(230) �`` .r.-w ,. 13+----- '`''-"----.. attlina could be lodged or buried in sediment, rocks, or crevices and difficult to see.Still others may have been found and not reported, Fig 4. Locations of all reported drifter recoveries.Multiple recoveries in one area are as suggested by some who called many weeks after recovery represented by one symbol, with the adjacent numeral denoting the number of because they forgot about the block for some time. Many blocks recoveries in that area. Numbers in parenthesis in the figure legend are the total number of blocks released at that event.Arrows connect release and recovery loca- may have beached one or more times,been refloated,and beached tions,and do not represent drift paths.Not all of the release-recovery connections are in secondary locations,as evidenced by some blocks that appeared shown for clarity. more abraded (in pictures sent by recoverers) than others. Although difficult to quantify,beaching and refloating is a common „°N ; N .:,,' ?°October 201.1 March 2012 ul"N ..�,, �1°N ,, 20°N. -\,,_., zt)°lir L 7-) ; 19°N. 19°NS'\'''''' 158°W .157°w 156°W 1.55°W 1.51°WV 158"W 157°W 15ti W 155°W 154°W 22°N 229,1 October 2011 • March 2012 :\S. +2%Windage +2%Windage D 21°N. D(:' ter:. 20*N. ?0 N 19°N //- 19°N '''V('-' ill'h-) 158"W' 157°W 156°W 155°W 154°W 158'W 157°Vv 156°W 155"W 154°W Fig 5. Results of SCUD model particle releases corresponding to the drifter releases in Hilo Bay.Particle trajectories represent drift pathways during the first two weeks after release. The virtual release point was moved 24 km offshore of the drifter release points to allow for model function.Top panels show model runs without any windage factor included.The bottom panels depict identical model runs with the addition of a 2%windage factor. 82 H.S.Carson et al./Marine Environmental Research 84(2013)76-83 behavior of the plastic debris the blocks are meant to represent accurately describe the nearshore environment around Hawai'i (Garrity and Levings 1993). would aid in the study of the transport of marine debris around the How representative our drifter results are to the drift of marine islands. Particles which enter the nearshore environment in the debris depends on how well their trajectories reproduce the SCUD model are considered beached(Fig. 5),despite the fact that motion of plastic pollution. Matching the ratio of surface area they are kilometers from shore in reality and would likely continue exposed to the wind to the submerged drag area is the key criterion their drift. Drifter experiments are useful tools, but cannot be for similarity(Wiese and Jones 2001).The complication with plastic deployed continuously to describe hourly or daily fluctuations in litter, of course, is the diversity of shapes and buoyancies repre- surface currents throughout the year as models can. With more sented.We designed our drifters with minimal windage,similar to nearshore data from high-frequency radar or current meters, a large amount of the debris captured by our booms(Table 1)such models validated with episodic drifter experiments could better as bags, fragments, and packaging. However, more buoyant items describe the factors that control the local sources and sinks of with more windage such as capped PET bottles are likely not well marine debris. represented by the drift blocks.Heterogeneity of debris found on some beaches and missing from others indicates significant 4. Implications robustness of pathways of different objects on a local scale and justifies the design of our drifter experiment. These results demonstrate the increased importance of East Hawai'i's waste management practices to the rest of the state.In the 3.3. Comparison with Ocean Model 'prevailing currents, Hilo lies "upstream" of the state's other communities and habitats, and material entering the ocean there The results of SCUD model simulation for Hilo Bay releases can begin to pollute other islands quickly. Our October release of (Fig.5)corresponded generally to the observed drifter recoveries in drift blocks shows that pollutants entering the ocean at Hilo can some cases. In October 2011, both the modeled particles and the reach widespread locations around the islands of Maui County in as drifters were quickly transported northward. In the model, little as eight days.Hilo is the only deepwater port for the island of however, they were swept past Maui toward the subtropical gyre Hawai'i, and as such receives a large amount of shipping, cruise accumulation zone and did not make landfall. It is possible that liner,and oil barge traffic.Of course,the results of this study cannot many blocks from both tide-state releases traveled the modeled be automatically extrapolated to all kinds of pollution.For example, path,especially from the low-tide release for which no blocks were oil spilled originally at the sea surface is known to gradually recovered.Model-predicted current speeds of 20-30 cm/s corre- evaporate,dissolve,change chemically,and,finally,sink.Based on sponded well to the timing of first recoveries on the islands of Maui our observations,any pollutant surviving on the ocean surface for and Lana'i.Including an estimate of the direct impact of the wind a period of weeks has a good chance to spread among the Hawaiian changed the modeled results considerably, as the onshore winds 'Islands. pushed most of the particles onto the shoreline north of Hilo(Fig.5) The steady stream of plastic debris from'Hilo and many where no blocks were recovered. The actual block recoveries in communities is an ongoing spill of solid-phase petroleum that Maui represent a middle ground between the two scenarios,sug- occurs with each rain storm.This spill is quite preventable.There gesting that both wind and surface currents affected the blocks' are no fees for domestic waste disposal at island transfer stations. drift.A small number of particles in SCUD traveled toward actual Several private and public recycling facilities in Hilo accept or block recovery locations on Maui(Fig.5). purchase materials that made up a third of the debris collected in Ironically,the surface current model did predict a large amount the booms.Much of the waste collected was single-use containers of Maui recoveries for the March 2012 release(Fig.5),when there or bags, most likely used for a short period of time (minutes or were none. One block, recovered on the northern tip of Hawai'i hours)before being discarded.If such containers were designed for Island, conformed to the model prediction.The other 211 recov- multiple reuses, both the volume of waste and the impacts to eries, however,were local or southward.A major possible reason habitats and communities could be reduced.All four counties of the for the discrepancy between model predictions and drifter obser- State of Hawaii,for instance,have each recently passed legislation vations was the need to move the virtual release point offshore of to limit the use of disposable plastic shopping bags(Bly 2012). the actual release point.The SCUD model does not include near- Although waste that travels from local sources to local sinks is shore processes, the same processes which necessarily transport the easiest to track and potentially mitigate, it is often a small land-sourced debris for at least a portion of their journey. In the portion of both pollution produced and pollution received by case of the March release,many blocks retained in the bay probably a given area.Even if all of the minimum 0.5 metric tons of marine did not ever enter the model space of SCUD.In October,the blocks ' debris from Hilo traveled to Kamilo Point each year,it would only were apparently quickly moved offshore and into the modeled make up 3%of the total debris removed from that coastline annu- current area.Adding the effect of windage to the SCUD model for ally.Similarly,plastic waste from Hilo,other parts of the island,or the March release(Fig.5)shows increased transport of the particles the rest of the state still persists in the ocean even if it is not onshore,closer to realized drift of the blocks. beached on one of the inhabited or uninhabited islands of the The differences between the modeled particles and the drift Hawaiian Archipelago. Local waste-management and consumer blocks can be partially attributed to the uncertain effects of choices that reduce the amount of plastic entering the ocean will windage, especially before the blocks waterlogged and floated certainly reduce local impacts,but of equal importance is reducing lower in the water.This uncertainty increases when the shape or each community's contribution to the global marine debris buoyancy of the floating object is unknown,as is often the case for problem. the variety of objects that constitute marine debris. Other discrepancies may result because the SCUD model is a daily product Disclosures and does not account for differences in mixed, semi-diurnal tidal state,which probably affected the drifter results considerably. The sponsors, Will J. Reid Foundation, had no involvement in Most ocean models used to predict the spread of marine debris study design, collection or interpretation of data, or manuscript operate on a larger-scale than the questions presented "here preparation.The authors declare no conflicts of interest.H.Carson (reviewed in Potemra 2012).The development of ocean models that designed the study,supervised data collection of both booms and H.S.Carson et al./Marine Environmental Research 84(2013)76-83 83 drifters,performed statistical analysis,and drafted the manuscript. Cole,M.,Lindeque,P.,Halsband,c.,Galloway,T.S.,2011.Microplastics as contami- M. Lamson helped design the study, assisted with drifter deploy- nants in the marine environment: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 62, 2588-2597. • ment and data collection,and edited the manuscript.D.Nakashima Donohue, MJ., 2005. Eastern Pacific Ocean source of Northwestern Hawaiian and D.Toloumu helped design the study,collected the boom data, Islands marine debris supported by errant fish aggregating device. Marine assisted with drifter construction and deployment,and edited the Pollution Bulletin 50,886-888. Donohue,M.J.,Boland,R.,Sramek,C.,Antonelis,G.,2001.Derelict fishing gear in manuscript.J.Hafner and N.Maximenko helped design the study, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: diving surveys and debris removal in carried out ocean modeling, and edited the manuscript. K. 1999 confirm threat to coral reef ecosystems. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42, McDermid helped design the study, provided lab space and tech- 1301-1312. Ebbesmeyer, C., Ingraham, W.J.,Jones,J.A., Donohue, MJ., 2012. Marine debris nical advice, mentored students, and edited the manuscript. All from the Oregon Dungeness crab fishery recovered in the Northwestern authors have approved the manuscript as submitted. Hawaiian Islands: identification and oceanic drift paths. Marine Pollution Bulletin 65, 69-75. Garrity, S.D., Levings, S.C., 1993. Marine Debris along the Caribbean Coast of Acknowledgments Panama.Marine Pollution Bulletin 26,317-324. Gregory, M.R., 2009. Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings: entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and The authors wish to thank the Will J. Reid Foundation for alien invasions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological funding.N. Maximenko and J.Hafner were partially supported by Sciences 364,2013-2025. NASA Ocean Surface Topography Science Team grant NNX08AR49G, Howell, EA., Bograd, S.J., Morishige, C., Seki, M.P., Polovina,JJ., 2012. On North NASAgrant NNX07AG53G NOAA National Climate Data Center Pacific circulation and associated marine debris concentration.Marine Pollution Bulletin 65,16-22. grant NA17RJ1230,and the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science Jia, Y., Calil, P.H.R., Chassignet, E.P., Metzger, EJ., Potemra, J.T., Richards, KJ., and Technology through their sponsorship of research at the Wallcraft,A.J.,2012.Generation of mesoscale eddies in the lee of the Hawaiian Islands.Journal ofa Geophysical Research-Oceans 116,18. International Pacific Research Center.Megan Lamson was partially Maximenko, NA., Hafner, J., Niiler, P., 2012. Pathways of marine debris from supported by the NOAA Fisheries grant NA11NMF4630052 to the trajectories of Lagrangian drifters.Marine Pollution Bulletin 65,51-62. Hawai'i Wildlife Fund. The authors thank Joseph Atafua, Rachel Maximenko,NA,Niiler,P.,Rio,M.H.,Melnichenko,0.,Centurioni,L,Chambers,D., Cabanilla, Sean Felice, April Goodson,Zach Johnson, Emily Linds- Zlotnicki,V.,Galperin,B.,2009.Mean dynamic topography of the ocean derived from satellite and drifting buoy data using three different techniques.Journal of trum, Lydia Morales, Robin Lamson, and participants of "Block Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 26,1910-1919. Party" drifter construction events for assistance. Captain Michael Maximenko,N.A.,Hafner,J.,2010.SCUD:Surface CUrrents from Diagnostic model. International Pacific Research Center Technical Note 5,17. http://apdre.soest. Childers, Gabe Hawelu, and Mike Pearson assisted with drifter hawaii.edu/projects/SCUD/SCUD_manual_02_17.pdf. releases. The suggestions of two reviewers greatly improved the Moore,C.J.,Lattin,G.L.,Zellers,A.F.,2011.Quantity and type of plastic debris flowing manuscript.The authors especially wish to thank the many people from two urban rivers to coastal waters and beaches of Southern California. who reported drifter recoveries. Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 11,65-73. Parham,J.E., Higashi, G.R., Lapp, E.K., Kuamo'o, D.G.K., Nishimoto, R.T., Hau, S., Fitzsimons,J.M.,Polhemus,D.A.,Devick,W.S.,2008.Atlas of Hawaiian Water- sheds&Their Aquatic Resources.http://www.hawaiiwatershedatlas.com/index. References html,last accessed 06/2012. Potemra,J.T.,2012.Numerical Modeling with Application to Tracking Marine Debris. Bly,L.,May 17,2012.Hawaii will be first state to ban disposable plastic bags.accessed Marine Polution Bulletin 65,42-50. September 14,2012.USA Today on the web.http://travel.usatoday.com. Ryan, P.G., Moore, C.J., van Franeker,J.A., Moloney, C.L., 2009. 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