HomeMy WebLinkAboutOne Water Roadmap for Hawaii County - UHM.DURP (2021)
One Water Roadmap:
Integrating Water Resource Management on Hawaiʻi Island
Developing a Place-Based One Water Roadmap
Ke lepo ke kumu wai, e huaʻi ana ka lepo i kai
When the source of water is tainted, dirt is carried seaward
Note to the reader:The project team has adopted the ethos of not italicizing ʻōlelo Hawai‘i—supposedly “foreign”words—or words that
aren’t used in the dominant culture.We’ve come to understand the practice of italicizing ʻōlelo Hawai‘i (Hawaiian language)as a form of
linguistic gatekeeping;a demarcation between which words are “exotic”,“othered”or “not found in the English language,”and those that
have a rightful place in the writings of native speakers and the academic work of native scholars.Glossaries have been provided by the
project team (see final products folder).
All photographs (excluding figures)found in the report were provided by and belong to members of the project team,or were legally
acquired as stock images along with the rights to be used.
Prepared by Alisha Summers,Billy Kinney,Christen Oliveira,Daezsa Tomas-Tamagawa,Harlee Meyers,Layla Kilolu,Noʻeau Machado,
Thomas Piʻilani Smith
PLAN 751: Planning Practicum
Instructors: Priyam Das, Lee Sichter
Teaching Assistant: Victor Gregor Limon
Department of Urban & Regional Planning, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
One Water Roadmap 2
1 Keener, V. et al. (2018).
2 (K)new,with the k in parentheses,is a method and a concept that entails gathering and revivifying inspiration from indigenous ancestral
(ecological) knowledge systems or “old wisdom” for the integral development and redevelopment of contemporary problem solving
One Water Roadmap 3
Preface
This work is designed to provide legible planning tools,framed
within the One Water approach and strategies,for water
management and planning within the context of Hawaiʻi Island.
This report was conceived and developed by University of Hawaiʻi
at Mānoa students,in the Department of Urban &Regional
Planning Department (DURP).These students sought to work
critically and consciously outside of comfort zones,to expand
their capacity for learning,and leverage their lived experiences,
skills and expertise while maintaining relationships with aloha
ʻāina (love of land)and visions of ʻāina momona (fat or abundant
lands).We (the authors)present this work in response to the
long-range planning needs of Hawai‘i County to work toward
integrated water resource management.Bethany Morrison,
Program Manager,Hawai‘i County Long-Range Planning Division
was our contact and liaison.It was noted,in her brief,that a lack
of communication and collaboration was spurred on by siloed or
sectoral management and may be caused by a failure to consider
the diverse responsibilities across jurisdictional and geographic
boundaries.
Formed in 2008,the US Water Alliance brings together diverse
interests to identify and advance common-ground,achievable
solutions to the US’s most prevalent water challenges.One Water
is an approach that was developed by the US Water Alliance to
promote water stewardship that is innovative,inclusive,and
integrated as it educates the nation about the true value of water
and advances policies and programs that manage water resources
to advance a better quality of life for everyone.
Hawai‘i’s water future is at a crossroads.We are experiencing
increased droughts and storm frequencies not documented in
recent history1.Furthermore,to accommodate growth and the
desire for increased living space,local governments are pressed
to fulfill water demands,expand and improve water delivery,
stormwater and wastewater utilities,and water planning.
Through all of this,there remains a requirement to be diligent
and respectful when understanding the needs of the community,
how to engage them,and ensure meaningful participation.
Currently,the emergence of water champions and water
championing speaks to the growing concern of how water is
managed.Wai (water)protectors seek to assume their kuleana
(responsibility)to steward water resources and make certain that
people have access to it.And,so,Hawai‘i can potentially lead the
way by forging (k)new2 solutions and implementing
transformative, collaborative and holistic solutions.
One Water Roadmap 4
Acknowledgements
Me ke aloha pumehana,
nā akua,
nā ʻaumākua,
nā kūpuna,
a me nāʻohana,
to our stakeholders,
for their time, manaʻo, and dedication to serving wai,
to Priyam Das and Lee Sichter,
for their insight and advice,
to the Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
for allowing us the opportunities to determine our own course in life,
and to
Bethany Morrison,
whose unwavering belief in our capabilities as today’s leaders
remained encouraging and steadfast
One Water Roadmap 5
Contents
Introduction 7
Process Design 10
Ka Wai Ola (The Living Waters)13
The Current Landscape of Water Management 17
The One Water Approach 21
Arenas for Action 23
(K)new One Water Framework 25
Reliable and Resilient Water Utilities 27
Accessible and Sustainable Water Resources/Systems 27
Thriving Cities 28
Interconnected & Thriving Moku 28
Competitive Business & Industry 29
Perpetuating (Re)Generative & Responsible Economics 29
Sustainable Agricultural Systems 30
ʻĀina Waiwai: Abundant Food Systems 30
Social & Economic Inclusion 31
Social & Economic Empowerment 31
Healthy Waterways 32
Hawaiʻi nui kuauli 32
Alternative Analysis / Recommendations 33
Stakeholder Recommendation Tables 34
Moving Forward 36
Appendix A: List of Stakeholders 37
Appendix B: Talk Story Guide 38
Appendix C: Agency Flowchart 39
Appendix D: Agency Overview 40
Appendix E: Matrix of Management Perspectives— Traditional, Public Trust, and One Water 41
Appendix F: (K)new Arenas for Action— Piko of Public Trust, Streams of Equity, Landscapes of Pilina 42
Appendix G: Stakeholder Recommendation Tables 43
Appendix H: Maps 44
References 54
One Water Roadmap 6
3 Grim, John A. (2006).
4 Wai:A general name for what is liquid;fresh water in distinction from kai,salt water:wai maka,tears;wai kahe,running water;wai u,
milk; wai eleele, ink; wai hooluu, dye; wai puna, spring water, etc. (A dictionary of the Hawaiian language (revised by Henry H. Parker))
5 Fenwick, et al. (2009).
One Water Roadmap 7
Introduction
Wai,or freshwater,is the life blood of the land and the foundation from which society itself can spring forth into waiwai:
abundance and worth.For kanaka ʻōiwi (native peoples),and the island communities in which we all live,both life and lifeways
or the “close interaction of worldview and economy in small-scale societies” (Grim, 2006)3 continue to be defined by wai4.
The idea of an integrated systems approach to
water is not new;in fact,the state of Hawaiʻi is
mandated by law to maintain the purity and the
flow of Hawaiʻi's water.The Hawaiʻi Supreme Court
describes the Public Trust Doctrine as “the right of
the people to have the waters protected for their
use [which]demands adequate provision for
traditional and customary Hawaiian rights,wildlife,
maintenance of ecological balance and scenic
beauty,and the preservation and enhancement of
the waters...”for present and future generations.
However,its full-scale implementation has yet to be
actualized.There are many signs that water
management in Hawaiʻi is entering another era of
change and the drive to reignite lines of communication based on water abundance for all,and for future generations,seems
promising through a lens of shared kuleana and public trust.All around the US,the management of water is seeing silo-busting
examples of integrated and inclusive approaches to water resource management.These approaches exemplify the view that all
water has value and should be managed in a sustainable,inclusive,integrated way.This perspective is called One Water.And,
while we are guided by the national One Water strategies,the scope of this project is to develop a roadmap for Hawaiʻi island,
and the promotion of robust local island economies, community and collective abundance, and thriving ecosystems.
Water Resources Management (WRM)systems include many institutional frameworks (legal,regulatory and organizational
roles),management instruments (regulatory and financial),and the development,maintenance and operation of infrastructure
(including water storage and conveyance,wastewater treatment,and watershed protection).Governments are normally
organized in terms of specific functions and rigid hierarchies,the normal result of politics,inevitably leading to fragmentation
and lack of coordination (Gil-Garcia,2012).According to the US Water Alliance,the Nation should be proud of its systems and
infrastructure to make water accessible and clean,but its systems,including the siloed actions,are insufficient for the challenges
we are now facing.The regulatory,financial,and governance structures have put water into disjointed and separately managed
silos for different forms of water: drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater.
An integrated approach considers scale, complexity, relationality, infrastructure, economies, varying worldviews, and
parameters for measuring success. The One Water framework is a holistic and collaborative approach that can consider all of an
island’s water resources from surface water, groundwater, potable water, to wastewater, recycled water, and stormwater as
“One Water.” Silos are organizational units where there is a breakdown in communication, co-operation, and coordination with
other parties5. Hawaiʻi County is faced with some unique, place-based, management challenges in regards to the silos which
have created an environment of individual and disparate systems within larger organizational boundaries. Responsibilities of
state and local governance often fall into complex management systems that are inefficient. Subsequently, sectoral or siloed
actions often generate lag effects or inaction due to jurisdictional confusion and miscommunication. Given the changing and
uncertain climate futures, research is needed to better inform and assist those who strive to create a more sustainable,
equitable future in which freshwater resources are overflowing to meet domestic, economic and environmental needs. Recently,
siloed approaches to land and water management have given way to more integrated approaches. Integrated approaches in
6 An ahupuaʻa is a traditional socioeconomic, geologic, and climatic subdivision of land
7 Traditional and non-traditional farming practices are distinct in some sense,but in terms of water law,traditional and customary practices
of farming are protected
8 Project objectives and deliverables were outlined in the project brief provided by the client,and the brief also included some identified
issues and examples of organizational silos
One Water Roadmap 8
water management necessitate processes of planning, developing and managing the world’s most precious, life-giving resource -
water - holistically and collaboratively.
The silos have been reinforced at every level of government—from the federal guidelines for clean and safe drinking water,to
how water rights and regulation are managed at the state level,to the disjointed nature of how city &county agencies and local
governments are organized.In addition,water resources are
influenced by industries,agriculture,and ecosystem management
in dissimilar ways that make decisions disparate from the
decisions made by other water managers and communities within
the same ahupuaʻa6.
Solving today’s water problems requires breaking down barriers
not only within the uses of water,but also among all the
stakeholders who influence,and are influenced by,the
management of water resources.Stakeholder voices include
community and business leaders,cultural practitioners,
industries,traditional and non-traditional farmers7,
environmental advocates,conservationists,policymakers,
academics,and many others.They all play important roles in the
quest to secure a sustainable water future for all.
This report offers a framework attempting to approach water
management,boldly,and to begin to formulate place-based
solutions for leadership towards One Water management on
Hawaiʻi island.We,the project team,were tasked to provide the following products /steps toward planning for One Water
implementation8:
1.An overview of the current water resource management framework in Hawaiʻi County.
a.Summarize existing State and County goals,objectives,policies,and guidelines related to water resource
management.
i.Review existing and proposed County strategies (relevant documents:Draft General Plan 2040,and
the various CDPs).
b.Identify agencies and organizations involved with water resource management,their missions,and their basic
institutional framework (for example,regulatory jurisdiction,organizational structure in relation to resource
management, etc.)
c.Identify overlaps,connections,collaborations,and gaps among water resource management entities,and
summarize the challenges to integrated water resource management (especially identify policies/functions
that lead to siloed action):
d.Clearly identify decision makers and the points at which they make decisions to establish policy and standards,
allocate resources, approve permits, and otherwise determine the future of water resource management.
e.Engage stakeholders in developing (a-d)above.Questions might include:How do these regulatory agencies see
their role in water resource management?How do they see their agency counterparts’roles in resource
management as complementary or contradictory?
2.One Water Framework:Develop a brief synopsis of the One Water approach which explains why integrating resource
management is advantageous for Hawaiʻi;include at least one example of a successful One Water collaboration in a
community similar to Hawai‘i County, and summarize lessons learned and best practices.
a.Cite case studies and other municipalities endeavors in integrating water resource management.
One Water Roadmap 9
3.Alternatives Analysis:Analyze the opportunities to collaborate in relation to water resource management in Hawaiʻi
County,alternative approaches to improve collaboration,and the trade-offs of each alternative relative to One Water
goals.
a.Identify policies and functions of the above entities that create opportunities
b.Engage stakeholders to explore the feasibility of alternatives.Questions might include:What would resource
managers like to do differently?Where do they see room for improvement in collaborating to manage water
resources better?
c.Outline alternative approaches to moving the dial towards water resource management integration (such as
opportunities to collaborate,policy creation/revision necessary for increased collaboration,public-private
partnerships opportunities, MOUs between agencies, etc.).
d.Evaluate and rank alternative approaches relative to One Water goals and other relevant criteria like cost,
feasibility, etc.
4.Hawai‘i County One Water Roadmap:Develop a roadmap of recommended actions for a progressive integration of
Hawaiʻi Island’s water resource management.
a.Ensure that the roadmap addresses who would implement,what they would implement,and how they would
implement.Priority should be placed on recommendations that result in ‘silo-busting.’Include a proposed
implementation time frame.
5.Slide Deck: Integrate the planning process and recommendations into a presentation (not to exceed 20 minutes)
a.The intended audience of this report would be the Planning Director of the County of Hawaiʻi and the Hawaiʻi
County Council.
The report is organized into the following sections:
1.Process Design summarizes the elements and functions of each portion of the project,and the internal processes for
organizing team roles and duties.
2.Ka Wai Ola offers a beginning overview of wai’s importance and Hawaiian perspectives of wai as a life-sustaining
element (akua)and the context or implications of its use and management by humans prior to European contact and
beyond.
3.The Current Landscape of Wai describes water management,jurisdictions,general water law and policies,governance,
and issues relating to sectorally managed water and disjointed management.
4.The One Water Approach and Arenas for Action outlines the vision and core principles that guide One Water’s
framework and the Arenas for Action and outlines strategies for One Water management.
5.(K)new One Water Framework offers a synopsis of each One Water Arena for Action,while offering a “reframing”of
those arenas to provide more place-based summaries for the types of implementable actions /strategies that each
arena calls for in the context of Hawaiʻi island.
6.Alternative Analysis /Recommendations draws on findings from the stakeholder engagement to explore opportunities
to move the dial toward integrated water resource management.Appendix C (Agency Flowchart)provides a
visualization of the complexities within jurisdictional hierarchies and levels of government.
7.Stakeholder Recommendation Tables explore stakeholder dialogue and present recommendations for collaboration,
policy creation/revision, and partnerships based on feasibility and priority.
8.Moving Forward concludes the written parts of this project by reinforcing the main message of the report;the rationale
for integrated water resource management ,One Water and (K)new One Water Approaches,and some important
takeaways / illuminations.
9.Appendices contain (A)a list of stakeholders involved in this project,(B)the talk story guide used for stakeholder
interviews,(C)a flowchart of agencies that comprise the landscape of water governance,(D)a matrix overview of
federal,state,and county agencies,(E)a matrix of water management perspectives,(F)a diagram of (k)new arenas for
action, and (G) a few maps of Hawaiʻi Island.
9 http://edithkanakaolefoundation.org/papakuMakawalu.php
One Water Roadmap 10
Process Design
As the project was centered on designing a roadmap for collaborative and integrated water management,the
project team developed a unique approach to process design grounded in Hawaiian knowledge,the lived experiences of each
team member,and their relationships to water and to each other.This project was conducted over a four-month period and
consisted of the following elements:
Laying the Kahua (Foundation)
The first step in producing a One Water framework uniquely designed for Hawaiʻi Island was to familiarize ourselves with the
area’s history,landscape,and specific needs.Our goal was to create a framework that above all else focused on place-based
design.To achieve this goal,preliminary place-based research was conducted to identify aspects of the One Water framework
that would be most beneficial to serving the communities of Hawaiʻi Island.This research involved studying mele (songs)and
moʻolelo (stories)documenting the different ecological regions and districts of Hawaiʻi Island,exploring the different types of
wai,and acknowledging different issues regarding wai management on Hawaiʻi Island.The Hawaiian research methodology
Papakū Makawalu9,created and disseminated by the Edith Kanakaʻole Foundation,was also used to critically analyze and
synthesize an understanding of the different perspectives of wai in mele (song and poetry)and pule (prayers or supplications).
Furthermore,this method provided an on-going way for us to emphasize and utilize different senses,ways of categorizing and
organizing our cultural /natural world to study and understand the issues and topics we were observing from multiple
perspectives.
Stakeholder Engagement Process
Contact & Communication -
We prioritized which agencies we believed we needed to engage;namely,starting with those that were provided by Bethany
and the County of Hawai‘i’s Long Range Planning Division in a preliminary list within the project brief.We determined how we
were going to connect with them;and team members contacted the identified stakeholders,scheduled for a kūkākūkā (talk
story)session,and facilitated the session.We created an email template that included an introduction,a description of the
project,and dates and times that we could all participate.We strove to accommodate stakeholders’schedules and,if they were
unavailable, we requested that we be referred to another representative from their department.
Scheduling & Preparation -
We used a shared Google Calendar to schedule our kūkākūkā sessions,which allowed for easy reference and access for all team
members.Due to the team members being situated across different islands and due to COVID-19,we conducted the talk story
sessions via Zoom.We provided the talk story questions in advance to our stakeholders to make the valuable time we had with
them most productive. The Talk Story guide can be found in Appendix B.
Facilitation & Agenda -
Our talk stories were conducted throughout the month of October.Every talk story was led by one facilitator and at least two
team members as note takers.The time span ranged from 30 minutes to 1.5 hours depending on the stakeholder’s availability.
The agenda included a welina (welcome)with team member introductions,a brief description of our project,talk story,and a
mahalo (thank you)closing.The stakeholder could answer our questions directly or share information in relation to our project
more generally.After each talk story,the team debriefed and discussed all that we learned and how we could use it to complete
our deliverables.
One Water Roadmap 11
Data Analysis
Data Collection -
We were respectful of any stakeholders who requested to remain anonymous and decided not to record interviews,opting to
assign two notetakers and one facilitator for each kūkākūkā.This allowed the facilitator to focus on the flow of the conversation
and obtain the necessary information.Although this resulted in some redundancies in note-taking,we found this method highly
beneficial in capturing a greater wealth of information.We consolidated all of the talk story data we collected into a spreadsheet
to assist us with the data analysis.Data collected from these stakeholder engagements included guided responses regarding an
agency’s role in water management,existing collaboration efforts and shortcomings,as well as relevant issues and
recommendations indicated by the stakeholder.
Reframing the One Water Arenas -
An important step to assessing the One Water framework for the County was to review the US Water Alliance One Water
Roadmap’s six “Arenas for Action.”We identified gaps or deficiencies in these arenas and strategies that made them less
applicable to the project area.The next steps involved reframing these one water arenas to fit Hawaiʻi County specific issues.
Updated arenas and strategy recommendations were made after analyzing and discussing the responses from the stakeholder
engagement.A coding process was used to categorize stakeholder management activities into the six One Water arenas.
Stakeholder responses were re-evaluated and assigned number(s)to correspond with the six One Water arenas (#1-6)along with
documentation on how that stakeholder addressed themes corresponding to a given arena.After coding all stakeholder
responses,common issues and themes among stakeholders operating under the same arenas for action were compiled for
future use.These coded responses were instrumental in creating updated and place-based one water arenas for action well
suited for Hawaiʻi County.
Alternative Analysis/Recommendations Process -
Our project brief asked us to identify,contextualize,and rank recommendations regarding water management and collaboration
in Hawaiʻi County.To address this,we drew upon the recommendations we received from the stakeholders categorizing them
into one of five themes:collaboration,infrastructure,research &data,policy ®ulation,and planning process.Once
categorized,each recommendation was assigned a number(s)1-6,corresponding to a reframed One Water arena.The final step
of this analysis involved ranking by priority and feasibility of each recommendation on a low-high scale.Low priority/low
feasibility means the recommendation is not ready for immediate action/difficult to implement and high priority/high feasibility
means it is ready for immediate action/easily implementable.
Reporting and Presentation -
The final deliverables for this project are a detailed written report and presentation slide deck as outlined in the project brief
provided by the client.The intended audience for our project presentation is the Hawaiʻi County Planning Director and the
Hawaiʻi County Council.
Internal Processes
Naʻau Check -
During the first team meeting,the team conducted a naʻau check,an icebreaker exercise to develop relationships between team
members.As the project progressed,the naʻau checks became an integral component of team meetings to check on the
well-being of team members.Topics of these naʻau checks ranged from brainstorming project concepts to personal reflections.
Naʻau checks strengthened team relationships while serving as a tool to allow team members to share personal stories,
concerns, and experiences from school, work, and personal life.
Team Communication -
An important goal for the team for the duration of this project was avoiding internal silos.Team members worked together on
project tasks through virtual work sessions,uploading active files to a team drive,and keeping lines of communication open via
phone and email.This allowed the group to collaboratively work on project deliverables ensuring that the voice of each
individual team member was included in the final product.
One Water Roadmap 12
Another critical tool utilized throughout the project involved the completion of monthly evaluation surveys that allowed team
members to discuss any personal successes,challenges,and/or feelings they were experiencing with the project.These
evaluations were submitted anonymously for team members to feel more comfortable expressing their opinions openly and
honestly.The survey responses were reviewed by the entire team and were used to guide the next steps of the project while
also serving as a reminder of all the hard work that had successfully been completed up to that point.
Respect, Navigating Disagreements, Playing to Strengths -
With any team project,there are different views and opinions that come to light while completing the final product.In order to
mitigate any challenges caused by differences,the team made it a point to respect and appreciate the individual strengths of the
team members.The team leveraged the different skills and backgrounds of team members and allowed individuals to take the
lead on components of the project that played to their strengths.When an issue did arise,the team consciously diagnosed the
concern and created a plan of action to resolve the problem.
Understanding That We Are Also Stakeholders -
The team recognized that we,as individuals,are also seen as stakeholders in the future of wai and equitable management.As
students and classmates,we also play a role in the overall well-being and growth of our peers.This realization,along with the
many existing passions and planning interests of team members,ensured that this project was completed to the best of our
abilities.
10 Much of this section is informed by and provided by the guidance and the work of Edith Kanaka‘ole Foundation (Papaku Makawalu
Workshops on wai)and “Ola I Ka Wai:A LEGAL PRIMER FOR WATER USE AND MANAGEMENT IN HAWAII”by D.Kapua‘ala Sproat,Ka Huli Ao
Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law, the William S. Richardson School of Law at the University of Hawaii at Manoa.
11 Liliuokalani. The Kumulipo : an Hawaiian Creation Myth, 1979.
One Water Roadmap 13
Ka Wai Ola (The Living Waters)
Life Giving Waters10
Wai,or water,is the essential life force of all living things.Lines in the Kumulipo11,a cosmogonic chant or inventory of the
evolution of the living Hawaiian world,says “he wai ka ai a ka laau /o ke akua ke komo,aoe komo kanaka.”Plants thrive and
survive on water.It is the element that exists where man cannot.Lāʻau (tree,plant,wood,forest)is also a poetic reference to
the human body and its limbs. Wai is the essential element for humans, both, internally and externally.
Water in our environment is cyclical,and
it is moved and transformed by various
processes.The northeasterly trade
winds provide Hawaiʻi with a majority of
its rainfall.The windward (eastern)sides
of the volcanic Hawaiian Islands,trade
winds push moisture rapidly up the
mountain slopes.Clouds form when
moist air is cooled –condensation.The
rising and cooling of this water-rich air
leads to cloud formation and orographic
rainfall,the origin of our fresh water,
and provides recharge for the
subterranean aquifers and deep
reservoirs.In addition to above-ground
water,Western science classifies three
types of subterranean water:basal,
perched,and dike-confined.
Precipitation occurs when water drops,
or ice particles,become large and heavy
enough to fall from cloud masses.Rainwater recharges groundwater,rivers,streams,etc.Some of that water is used by plants.
Established forests and healthy uplands return water back to the cycle through the creation mist,fog,vapor by way of
transpiration and some is evaporated directly from
saturated land,soil,and wet leaves.The sum of all the
transpired and evaporated water then becomes
available to form clouds and rain –this is what is
called the evapotranspiration process.
For Native Hawaiians,akua are the natural processes
and elements that are essential to life and akua are
assigned to each part of the hydrological cycle.Kino
lau akua are the earthly forms and representations of
life-sustaining elements such as water in its various
forms,plants,and natural phenomena that are the
bare necessities of sustaining life within our island
ecologies.Kāne is an akua of fresh water,juice,sap,
bodily fluids (i.e.non-saltwater liquids)and in the
form of Kānehoalani,heat and the sun,energy
12 Emma Metcalf Nakuina, Ancient Hawaiian Water Rights, in HAWAIIAN ALMANAC & ANNUAL FOR 1894 at 79 (Thomas G. Thrum ed., 1893)
One Water Roadmap 14
powering the water cycle.Kanaloa is the akua of the ocean,saltwater,breadth,depth,and expansiveness and therefore,the
akua of subterranean water,aquifers,and deep-sea discharge.Laka represents the growth of the established forests and the
moisture,ohu (mists),vapors,fogs,drip,and rain capture associated with it.Lono represents the elements of the rainy
Makahiki (winter),one of harvest,abundance,and peace.Kū represents governance,law,and warfare,all of which are
foundationally based in wai.Intricate respect,reverence,and understanding of these akua through reciprocal,life-giving
relationships are how Native Hawaiians understand and care for their natural resources.Understanding and quantifying the
movement of water in the hydrological cycle is necessary to manage our water resources,avoid environmental degradation,
adapt to climate change,and ensure connection to land as well as an availability of water that meets domestic needs for future
generations.Most importantly,the reverence for these physical manifestations of akua and spiritual connotations of water
would disallow a commodifcation or ownership of water.Ali‘i and ali‘i nui (leaders and chiefs),instead,would manage water as
a resource that benefits the entire ahupua’a, current and future kin.
Prior to the documented arrival of Westerners (1778),water was recognized as an akua or an essential element and process for
life.The continuous flow of water from ma uka (in or toward the uplands)to ma kai (seaward)provided critical aquifer
recharge,freshwater for forests,traditional agricultural systems,clean drinking water,loko i‘a (fishpond aquaculture),and
supported productive estuaries and fisheries.In addition,streams and rivers provided necessary waterways for the life cycle,
habitat,and migration or movement of native stream life from the uplands to the sea and vice versa –including ‘o‘opu,‘ōpae,
hīhīwai,and hapawai.Managing mauka to
makai connectivity was a kuleana,both a right
and a responsibility.
Given the importance of water to Hawaiian
society,naturally,traditional laws or kānāwai
developed around the sharing,the use,and the
management of freshwater.Appointed by ali‘i
and ali‘i nui,konohiki stewarded resources,like
fish and water,within an ahupua‘a and smaller
land divisions such as ‘ili and ‘ili kūpono12.
Lunawai (“water boss”or water stewards)
were also appointed,sometimes by the
konohiki,and managed water distribution and
was the overseer for waterway maintenance
within various land divisions.The power of the
konohiki and lunawai was predicated and
relied on the cooperation of maka‘āinana
(people that worked and tended to the land).
Konohiki facilitated the relationship between
maka‘āinana and the resource itself.To ensure
productivity of the ahupua‘a,then,would
require the konohiki and lunawai to treat
maka‘āinana fairly and avoid disputes or
disruptions in the connectivity and
management of water.If maka‘āinana felt
mistreated or dissatisfied,they were free to
leave,and thus,shame would fall on the
konohiki or lunawai.Kānāwai can be
translated,literally,as “relating to water”or
“the rights of water”as it dictates all aspects of
life.Thus,water was and is a public trust
resource.In ancient times,no one could own
water.Rather it was a resource to be managed
for future and present generations.
One Water Roadmap 15
The arrival of foreigners around 1778 affected life
and society and the ways water was used and
managed.The favorable climates allowed
year-around growing seasons and sparked
plantation agriculture (mainly sugar and
pineapple).Ditch and irrigation systems were
constructed on all major Hawaiian islands.Water
was often transported away from Windward
communities to feed Central and Leeward areas
that were often too arid to support these
agricultural industries.Water was becoming
commodified,and while water was no longer
revered as a physical manifestation of akua,the
concept of public trust carried over into the
Kingdom of Hawaiʻi.These changes to water
intensified many of the cultural harms to Kānaka
Maoli and the lands /waters of Hawaiʻi.The
timeline above provides important events in the history of water use and management in Hawaiʻi,from Western contact up to
the landmark Interim Instream Flow Water Case of Nā Wai ʻĒha.
One Water Roadmap 16
13 Sproat, Kapua, D., 2011.
14 HAW. CONST. art. XI, § 1.
15 HAW. CONST. art. XI, § 7.
16 Waiahole I, 9 P.3d at 445; Sproat, Kapua, D., 2016..
One Water Roadmap 17
The Current Landscape of Water Management
For Hawaiʻi County,water governance involves a network of federal,state,and county agencies that have specific legal
responsibilities (see Figure 4).Although this multi-jurisdictional approach provides each county the flexibility to tailor water
regulations to meet its own unique circumstances,the multiple layers of administration and governance presents challenges for
responsible water management.Understanding how water resources are currently regulated can help stakeholders envision an
integrated One Water framework for Hawaiʻi County.A diagram of the various agencies that are involved in water management
on Hawaiʻi Island can be found in the Appendix C (Agency Flowchart).
At the federal level,the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA)is the primary agency that sets national standards
through the Clean Water Act (CWA)and the Safe Drinking
Water Act (SWDA)to protect water quality and monitor
the implementation of these standards.The federal laws
provide the foundational requirements that each state and
county must adhere to in its regulation of water resources
while allowing each state/county to establish more
restrictive regulations where appropriate.
In Hawaiʻi,several agencies are involved in water
management.The Commission of Water Resource
Management (CWRM)within the Department of Land and
Natural Resources (DLNR)regulates groundwater,surface
water,and water management areas (WMAs).Meanwhile,
the Department of Health (DOH)monitors safe drinking
water,wastewater,and groundwater.A description of
agencies involved in water management can be found in
Appendix D (Agency Overview).
At the state level,water management is codified through the Hawaiʻi State Constitution,the Hawaiʻi Water Code (HRS Chapter
174C), Hawaiʻi Administrative rules, and case laws13. The Public Trust Doctrine of the Hawaiʻi State Constitution declares:
“the State and its political subdivisions shall conserve and protect Hawaiʻi’s natural beauty and all natural resources…all
public natural resources are held in trust by the State for the benefit of the people.”14
The Public Trust Doctrine codifies the State’s kuleana (responsibility) to protect all of Hawaiʻi’s natural resources for the benefit
of the people. The State’s kuleana to wai is articulated in Article XI, Section 7:
“the State has an obligation to protect, control and regulate the use of Hawai’i’s water resources for the benefit of its
people.”15
The Public Trust Doctrine incorporates the dual mandate of protection and maximum reasonable and beneficial use16;therefore,
the consideration and protection of the Public Trusts acts as the basis in allocating and planning all water resources for all state
agencies.
One Water Roadmap 18
At the federal,state,and county levels,there are agencies operating in silos when regulating water resources and developing or
implementing policies that affect water use.A lack of inter-department collaboration between public agencies along with a lack
of meaningful partnerships with private organizations sometimes results in ecosystem disruptions,inequitable access,
unsustainable water allocation,and constraints on economic development.In the following section,we summarize some of the
issues stemming from siloed action pertinent to Hawaiʻi County.
Although the Hawaiʻi County General Plan and the Community Development Plans (CDPs)stress the importance of effective
water resource management,disjointed management persists.Despite the stated goal to effectively manage Hawaiʻi Island’s
water resources and the need for a collaborative management approach,there are various jurisdictional and geographic
disconnects that the County identified in their brief, including:
➢Water supply, wastewater, and stormwater are managed by separate County agencies. These agencies do not actively
collaborate with each other or operationalize integrated water system management.
➢DWS is a semi-autonomous utility agency while the Wastewater Division is one of two divisions (the other being the
Solid Waste Division)under the Department of Environmental Management.This perpetuates the concept that
wastewater is a ‘waste’ product rather than a valuable water resource that requires careful management.
➢State and Federal agencies regulate soil quality,stream quality,nearshore water quality,and individual wastewater
systems;therefore,Hawaiʻi County agencies generally defer to these agencies’jurisdiction rather than collaborate in
planning for the management of these resources.
➢The Department of Public Works treats stormwater as a waste product that must be quickly transported away from
urban areas.
➢There is no commitment from the County of Hawaiʻi to participate in existing partnerships with watershed
management entities around the island.
Through a synthesis of information from agency mandates,regulatory jurisdiction,community development plans,county
general and water use plans,and stakeholder engagement we have summarized some of the issues faced by managers and
communities in regards to the health and vitality of water and water systems.
Disjointed management via siloed action, communication, and funding
➢There are various disconnects between water and land use planning. Land uses and development are designated in
areas with insufficient water infrastructure and/or questionable water supplies. There is also a lack of consideration of
the ecological impacts certain land uses may have on the health and quality of the water system. A few examples
illustrating these disconnects include the following:
●Land uses within the zone of influence on groundwater quality are not currently regulated. For instance, deep
wells are often located downstream of agricultural and urban land uses which can impact the quality of these
sources.
●Hawaiʻi County does not require verification of a long-term, reliable supply of water prior to the approval of
development projects, such as subdivisions. There is also a lack of careful consideration of the ecological
effects these communities will have on the water system.
●Currently, Hawaiʻi County Department of Water Supply looks for water based on what the land allocations are
rather than having the water availability and ecological health be the basis of zoning and
density/decision-making.
➢There is a lack of holistic understanding/approach for building water security and managing water as a Public Trust
resource. Treating water as a public trust resource should be ofthe highest consideration when making decisions that
affect water resources, yet agencies still grapple with how to specifically fulfill their kuleana under the Public Trust.
Fulfilling this kuleana requires adequate consideration of the interconnectedness of all water sources, including surface,
ground, and coastal waters. Moreover, the system is currently set up in a way that rewards new development,
including the development of new wells and diverting attention away from Public Trust considerations.
➢There are inadequate legislation, memorandums, and political water champions to ensure sustained agency
collaboration, project completion, and successful position turnover.
17 Quotation marks are used around the term ‘off-the-grid’to imply that the term is misleading for no one is completely living off the grid.
Whenever there is an emergency, the county must assist them.
One Water Roadmap 19
➢Limited funding and resources exacerbate disjointed management. Agencies must “compete” for State funds and, with
limited funding and resources, agencies must prioritize management actions. Collaboration opportunities are rarely
highly prioritized.
Infrastructure, Pollution, & Cesspool Closure
➢There are overall concerns regarding the lack of, inefficiency of, and the aging of water infrastructure systems.
Furthermore, complex island geology and sparse populations constrain the physical and financial capabilities of
infrastructure availability and expansion on Hawaiʻi Island.
➢In recent decades, the County of Hawai’i has not adequately prioritized infrastructure to support development and
population growth. This is often due to the existing wastewater cost structure. The county largely subsidizes
wastewater service because the valuation for providing wastewater service is not based on the cost value for the
service. This results in little to no financial incentive to significantly improve or expand the wastewater systems.
Consequently, wastewater is the least addressed critical infrastructure asset within Hawaiʻi County, and often impedes
thoughtful/responsible development.
➢Watershed, waterway, and (eco) system degradation is brought on by consumptive needs, industrial development, and
climate change. Water infrastructure, such as wastewater and stormwater systems, on Hawaiʻi island is inefficient and
does not have the capacity to accommodate what users generate. This problem will be exacerbated by climate change
hazards such as changes in precipitation and temperature patterns, extreme weather events, and sea level rise.
Resulting flooding, erosion, and overwhelmed infrastructure and sewer overflows pose great risks of pollution and
habitat destruction to Hawaiʻi Island.
➢Wastewater management and state-mandated cesspool closure poses a major challenge for Hawaiʻi island. Fifty-seven
percent of the State’s cesspools are on Hawai’i Island, with many on highly permeable volcanic soil, lava tubes, near the
coastline, or located at great distances from the nearest municipal system. Cesspool seepage has contributed to the
pollution of coastal waters and also threatens underground sources of drinking water.
Water Access & Equity
➢There are issues of poor access to clean drinking water in certain Native Hawaiian, rural, and “off-the-grid”17
communities. Without access to easily accessible, clean drinking water, families and communities can be locked in
poverty for generations. Lack of water services can also render properties unusable/unlivable. Figure 5 displays the
water system and service areas for Hawaiʻi County overlaid with Hawaiian Homeland areas.
In regards to “off-the-grid” communities it is important to better understand these communities on a contextual level.
“Off-the-grid” communities are cheaper largely due to lack of services. Consideration must be given to the fact that
some people may decide to live in these “off-the-grid” communities by choice whereas others may not be able to afford
living elsewhere. These contextual understandings can come from conversations with these communities.
➢There is a lack of leadership from state and county entities/agencies to conduct meaningful community outreach and
engagement that empowers community members to be shared decision-makers and resource managers of wai.
Currently, community involvement in water resource management is limited to the basic inclusionary processes: 1)
Community Development Plan and General Plan updates; 2) public comment for Environmental Assessments; and 3)
public notices and hearings.
Funding Constraints
Lack of funding is an overarching issue that limits an agency's ability to fulfill their responsibilities and thoughtfully
address the issues outlined above. Financing requirements are increasing due to escalating infrastructure,
maintenance, and water treatment costs, and are exacerbated by new demands from urbanization, population growth,
and climate change threats. The development of innovative projects and initiatives, such as wastewater reuse projects,
One Water Roadmap 20
are also impeded by limited funding and resources. In addition to the financing of infrastructure and services, more
funding is needed to support in-agency functions, such as information gathering and capacity building. Finding
cost-effective, long-term approaches to sustain infrastructure construction and operation costs, in-agency functions,
and support the innovation of projects and initiatives is becoming ever more critical.
18 One Water for Climate Resiliency: A White Paper. 2020.
19 City of Denver, 2020.
One Water Roadmap 21
The One Water Approach
The One Water approach envisions managing
all water in an integrated,inclusive,and
sustainable manner to secure a bright,
prosperous future for generations to come.In
contrast to typical integrated water resource
plans (IWRP),One Water is more holistic in
nature,primarily driven by triple-bottom-line
(environmental,economic,and social)
objectives and spearheaded by government
officials.18 One Water approaches are
progressing in multiple arenas:from using
advanced technologies to recover nutrients
and energy from wastewater;to using green
stormwater techniques to mitigate flooding
while beautifying neighborhoods;to
undertaking watershed-level planning and
collaboration to address water quality issues;
to implementing innovative financing and
partnership models.
CASE STUDIES
One Water has experienced success on a national scale in a number of cities and locales of various sizes,each with varying
management challenges and collaborative solutions:
➢Los Angeles, California -
●Led by the LA Department of Sanitation (LASAN)and LA Department of Water and Power (LADWP),LA focuses
on reducing the dependence on imported water through wastewater reuse.
●Memorandum of Agreements (MoAs)codify collaboration between LASAN and LADWP (water quality-supply
nexus) regarding stormwater management.
●Holistic lens identifies multi-purpose projects using a “trigger approach”and coordinates water management
across all relevant city departments.
●Developed master plans for wastewater and stormwater utilities,Water Conservation Potential Study,Water
Reuse Master Plan, Stormwater Capture Master Plan.
➢Denver, Colorado -
●Recognizes negative impacts of siloed management and multi-benefit solutions of holistic water management
●Denver One Water consists of a core planning team (six agencies)+a larger network of collaborative
partnerships throughout the watershed.
●Faces extreme wildfires, water shortfalls, projected population growth, demand, and climate pressures.
●Promotes water reclamation and reuse for water conservation,resilience,urban livability,equity and social
justice.19
➢Austin, Texas -
●Though finding One Water “intimidating”at first,severe drought catalyzed the implementation of One Water
to diversify water systems, reuse, and management and reduce dependence on imported water.
●Austin implements collaborative and adaptive management to model future water demand and supply
projections.
●Conducting 80 outreach events aided in developing outcomes for updating codes in water conservation,water
20 San Francisco Public Utilities Commission, 2018.
One Water Roadmap 22
loss control, diversifying landscape, stormwater and rainwater harvesting.
➢Miami-Dade, Florida -
●The Water and Sewer Department (WASD)utilizes One Water to address wastewater and sea-level rise
concerns with 20-year, $13.5 billion Capital Improvement Plan (CIP).
●Through an integrated utility management approach,understanding the integrated shocks and stressors of
climate change within the sector better inform resiliency.
●Recognizing that resiliency must be operationalized led to the establishment of the Resilient Utility Coalition
(RUC), which aids in promoting leadership and education about climate resiliency.
➢San Francisco, California -
●Started small with an agency Working Group representing resource areas (Water,Wastewater,Power,Finance,
and External Affairs) to focus on tangible implementation.
●Comprehensive and transparent stakeholder involvement including but not limited to,a Citizens Advisory
Committee, Rate Fairness Board, Revenue Board Oversight Committee, and Residential Users Appeals Board
●Matches the “right water to the right use”,such as using reclaimed and/or treated water for irrigation and
saving potable groundwater for drinking.20
●Fees to cover administrative costs of new ordinances,grants for those who implement non-mandatory
projects.
A review of One Water case studies and the results of our stakeholder interviews support the conclusion that the framework has
been successful in many communities, garnering support across jurisdictions. The One Water framework however is not a
"one-size-fits-all" solution, and we identified the following as aspects that limit its usefulness.
GAPS IN THE ONE WATER FRAMEWORK
➢Opposes siloed management status quo -
●One Water relies heavily on collaboration and supports “out-of-the-box” thinking, which is difficult in siloed
management
●Public is largely risk-averse in nature, elevating the need for successful collaborative government efforts
●Should not become a new reporting entity that usurps existing organizations
➢Top-down government approach -
●The framework has a tendency to be enforced on an agency-level (e.g. the Mayor’s Office), trickling
downwards to sub-agencies.
●Can limit effectiveness depending on which agency is spearheading the effort.
●Not often observed as a grassroots-level engagement strategy
➢Intention, not action based -
●Designed to be a guideline, not “a project unto itself”
●One Water is often aspirational and intention-based. While this approach has the opportunity to bring diverse
stakeholders together, its lack of an action-based approach makes effective implementation difficult.
➢Lack of place-based or indigenous knowledge -
●While water resources frequently have place-based and indigenous knowledge and methodology, the One
Water leaving little to no room for community or indigenous knowledge or methodology. Meanwhile,
indigenous and place-based knowledge is integral for water management initiatives, particularly in the Hawaiʻi
County context.
➢Needs sufficient catalysts for implementation -
●Event - One Water often has a compelling need for implementation, for example, frequent flooding or climate
change. Without a specific catalyst or event, the framework is difficult to implement, fund, or maintain.
●Champions - Oftentimes, a One Water plan is initiated by a key champion in the form of an agency or
individual, and relies on consistent, sustained efforts to accomplish the framework’s goals. Thus, if agency
management changes, or the key individual is no longer present, initiatives may not be completed.
➢Danger of being a “branding strategy” -
●With One Water’s popularity as a tool for interconnected and integrated water management, it can run the risk
of becoming a trend without substantial implementation or efforts.“There are 3 words in the industry
One Water Roadmap 23
(sustainability, big data, and resiliency) that are very abused and have lost their impact. One Water risks being
the fourth”.
One Water Roadmap 24
Arenas for Action
This section of the report is organized into six arenas for action,offering
concrete strategies that advance the One Water approach.The One Water arenas for action cover a range of issue areas,
including:reliable and resilient water utilities;thriving cities;sustainable agriculture;competitive business and industry;
social and economic inclusion;and healthy waterways.Taken together,these arenas for action can lead to tangible progress
in how we manage water resources in America.Each arena begins with an overview of the issue,lays out strategies that are
being deployed, and spotlights promising practices.
We created a matrix of Traditional Resource Management /Public Trust /and One Water Frameworks and Perspectives (see
Appendix E).It outlines the viewpoints of wai,ʻāina,water management,land tenure,law &governance,and community
through each framework.This matrix assisted in the development of (k)new approaches that grounded our frameworks,
rationales,and products /deliverables in a place-based narrative around water in relation to Hawaiʻi County and the
illuminated gaps of each framework.From these illuminations,we have identified key aspects of an integrated,place-based,
(k)new One Water framework that could guide managers toward a more equitable and abundant future of water
management.The three main components of this framework are the Public Trust,Equity,and Pilina (relationships and
interdependence).
It is important to note that while the report segments the major strategies into these six arenas,there is a natural
interdependence.True to the One Water approach,water involves complex and interwoven solutions with many partners
across jurisdictions.The six arenas are an imperfect but earnest attempt to structure the strategies in a logical fashion to
support reflection and replication.The identified gaps or deficiencies in these arenas,as national and continental strategies,
made them less applicable to the project area.The next steps involved reframing One Water arenas to fit Hawaiʻi County
specific issues through analysis,discussion,and coding of the responses from the stakeholder engagement.In the following
sections,coded responses were instrumental in creating the (K)new,place-based,One Water Arenas for Action better
One Water Roadmap 25
suited for Hawai‘i County.One Water Arenas for Action is positioned,side-by-side,with the reframed (K)new One Water
Arenas for Action starting on page 23.
21 Components of Social Equity include:Distributional Equity -Programs and policies resulting in fair distributions of benefits and burdens
across all segments of a community,prioritizing those with highest need;Procedural Equity -Inclusive,accessible,authentic engagement
and representation in processes to develop or implement sustainability programs and policies;Structural Equity -Decisions are made with
a recognition of the historical,cultural,and institutional dynamics and structures that have routinely advantaged privileged groups in
society and resulted in chronic,cumulative disadvantage for subordinated groups;Transgenerational Equity -decisions consider
generational impacts and do not result in unfair burdens on future generations.
One Water Roadmap 26
(K)new One Water Framework
The Piko of Public Trust -
Affirmative duty to take the Public Trust into account in planning and allocation of natural resources,and to protect Public Trust
uses whenever feasible.Public trust applies to all water resources without exception or distinction,regardless of its immediate
source (Waiahole,94 Haw.97 (2000)).Protected “trust purposes”include resource protection,Native Hawaiian rights and
practices,appurtenant rights and domestic water.Presumption in favor of trust purposes;burden on state and commercial users
to justify proposed uses.
Streams of Equity -
Social equity is creating,promoting,and incorporating equal and fair policies and opportunities for all to be healthy,happy,and
prosperous.The Urban Sustainability Directors Network (USDN)defines equity through four components:distributional,
procedural, structural, and transgenerational.21
Landscapes of Pilina -
Building and maintaining relationships and connections to one another is crucial for the implementation of integrated water
management.By recognizing that relationships extend beyond the duration of a project or process (and often beyond social
norms and boundaries), pilina transgresses temporary inclusion and produces genuine empowerment.
One Water Roadmap 27
The geographic piko (origin,center,navel)of Hawaiʻi island,and arguably the entire Hawaiian world,is Mauna Kea.Its
geography and elemental inhabitants flourish to provide freshwater recharge to almost every region of Hawaiʻi island in
different ways.Lake Waiau sits atop Mauna Kea,ka wai kamahao,a remarkable and sacred body of water.This imagery provides
a place-based framework in which we have corroborated with the provided One Water narrative and literature to create an
Integrated,Place-Based,(K)new One Water Framework and Arenas for Action,that are separate but also include and collaborate
with the existing, national Arenas for Action as demonstrated by the One Water Roadmap.
One Water Roadmap 28
One Water Arena for Action | (K)new One Water Arena for Action
Arena for Action #1
Reliable and Resilient Water Utilities
Beyond the historic mandates for utilities to comply with
the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act,
One Water and water utility innovation is transforming
service delivery and improving water quality /
environmental standards to stretch and diversify a
community’s water supply. One Water is designed to
create responsible water managers, partnerships in local
economic development, and proactive members of a
watershed community that work toward delivering
maximum benefits at affordable costs.
Additionally, through the notion that “there is no such
thing as ‘waste’” utilities of all types can be focused on
resource recovery and natural processes wherever
possible. When upgrades and/or repairs are required, the
opportunities arise for making changes to modernize and
make systems more resilient by increasing energy
efficiency, reducing vulnerabilities, and improving
management practices that also entail using the
“right-sized” and optimal science and data for
project-making purposes.
Some of the key strategies deployed by One Water
include:
●Diversifying and stretching water supplies
●Utilizing green infrastructure to manage flooding
and revitalize neighborhoods
●Transforming wastewater into a resource
●Forging new business models
Arena for Action #1
Accessible and Sustainable Water
Resources/Systems
Standards for water delivery and accessibility are
established by mandates such as the Clean Water Act and
Safe Drinking Water Act, but when providing water to
urban areas, outlier communities, various economies
over the county’s water delivery systems water managers
should take into consideration sources and destinations
of water in regards to Hawaiʻi's unique ecology and
diverse socio-economic landscape. Hawaiʻi Island is
expansive and vast; the volcanic and changing landscape
can sometimes make the expansion of utilities to new
communities challenging. Expanding land uses and
growth can put pressure on existing water sources and
delivery systems over time and illuminate underlying
inequities. In Hawaiʻi, water exists as a natural feature or
phenomenon and a public trust resource that enhances
the quality of all human life - an important resource that
should be accessible to all at affordable costs. Water
infrastructure continues to be susceptible to time,
climate change, changing political regimes and
boundaries, and changes in value or use. Transforming
stormwater and wastewater may be critical to extending
the sustainability of water resources. Resort and
agricultural industries may be able to utilize recycled
water through reuse and reclamation in onsite and
off-site systems. Water distribution and delivery, too,
should stretch water resources through robust, reliant,
and adaptive measures to be viewed through an
integrated and shared lens of social and environmental
justice - and an understanding of wai’s importance
sourced through a kanaka ʻōiwi worldview. Accessible
and Sustainable Water Resources/Systems intends to
assist Hawaiʻi County in forging new models for
management, business, and climate resiliency of water
systems and resources through a shared kuleana,
promoting equity, and building pilina.
One Water Roadmap 29
One Water Arena for Action | (K)new One Water Arena for Action
Arena for Action #2
Thriving Cities
As the urban population continues to grow and place
additional stress on water resources, the social,
economic, and environmental prosperity of these cities
becomes increasingly dependent on the sustainable
management of water. In recent years, the management
of water has grown in strategic importance for local
governments with sustainability becoming a unifying
theme around the world. Integrated and inclusive
management of water can create a multitude of benefits
to help promote vibrant cities while also reducing the
amount of negative impacts due to water emergencies.
Strategies for achieving Thriving Cities include:
●Integrated planning across the water cycle
●Utilizing onsite water systems
●Adopting a “dig once” approach
●Deploying advanced technologies to improve
decision making
●Managing water to foster climate resilience
Arena for Action #2
Interconnected & Thriving Moku
Hawaiian land tenure systems contained the resources
necessary for sustenance as well as the management
mechanisms to ensure their sustainability and prosperity.
Delineated by water boundaries and availability, land
divisions such as moku (districts) were dependent on
smaller ahupuaʻa (land divisions), which were in turn
dependent on working, interconnected parts. The
maintenance of this socio-ecological pilina (relationship)
reduces vulnerability to external stressors and creates a
multitude of social, economic, and ecological benefits.
In Hawai’i County, thriving growth has been hindered by
siloed action and sectoral management. To achieve an
interconnected and thriving future, emphasis should be
placed on community and cross-jurisdictional
collaboration as well as further developing these pilina.
This interconnectivity will ensure that Hawai’i County is
able to enhance the well-being of its residents while also
creating an interconnected and thriving moku.
Strategies for achieving interconnected and thriving
moku include:
➢Upholding the integrity of the water cycle with
ecological and human needs
➢Focusing planning, efforts and initiatives at the
watershed and moku levels
➢Supporting localized, small-scale solutions to
water reuse and onsite systems
One Water Roadmap 30
One Water Arena for Action | (K)new One Water Arena for Action
Arena for Action #3
Competitive Business & Industry
Achieving a secure One Water future with both
sustainable water resources and economic prosperity will
require industries to operate within the framework that
views the two outcomes as interconnected. Water is
essential for all thriving industries, and water challenges
(water availability and inadequate water quality) weaken
business growth and opportunities. It is this codependent
nature between business and water that necessitates the
responsibility which industries have to be stewards that
protect and restore the water resources they rely on.
Competitive Business & Industry can be achieved
through:
●Fully integrating water stewardship into
company strategy
●Deploying water efficiency, stormwater
management, and water reuse at industrial
facilities
●Developing upstream and downstream
partnerships in priority watersheds
Arena for Action #3
Perpetuating (Re)Generative &
Responsible Economics
A critical component of Hawaiian cultural values involves
understanding the kuleana that we as people have to
mālama ʻaina (care for the land). In order to create a
future of sustainable water use through the One Water
framework, this value must be shared by all, especially by
groups who are frequent users of natural resources such
as water for commercial benefit.
Perpetuating (re)generative & responsible economies
implies acknowledging and expanding upon the shared
kuleana industries have to be stewards of the resources
that drive their economies. To achieve a One Water
future that decouples economic growth and ecological
impacts, industries should work collaboratively to
function as stewards of the land, protecting and
preserving the resources that make their own growth and
development possible.
➢Encourage implementation of circular
economies and aloha ʻāina economic futures
process frameworks
➢Ahupuaʻa scale industry water management
collaborations
➢Industrial site compliance with updated water
management standards
One Water Roadmap 31
One Water Arena for Action | (K)new One Water Arena for Action
Arena for Action #4
Sustainable Agricultural Systems
Freshwater is the lifeblood of agriculture—food
production is responsible for 80 percent of all water
consumed. The food, feed, fiber, and fuel on which we all
rely is produced on 75 percent of the land [in America]
where two percent of the population lives.
Approximately 80 percent of the population lives in
urban areas, and provides the labor force that processes
and manufactures agricultural goods, contributing to
local and regional economies. Changing weather
patterns have a direct impact on farmers and their ability
to adapt is key for managing crops and water in the face
of present challenges. One Water leaders are
implementing innovative ways to manage soil, water, and
nutrients to achieve higher-performing systems that not
only lead to more productive agriculture, but also
minimize downstream and off-site impacts.
Strategies for sustainable agricultural systems include:
●Using on-farm strategies to reduce water
consumption and manage nutrients
●Creating partnerships among upstream and
downstream communities
●Using watershed-scale planning and monitoring
Arena for Action #4
ʻĀina Waiwai: Abundant Food Systems
ʻĀina waiwai, or abundant and productive water and
land, are the main drivers of regenerative agriculture and
food systems in Hawaiʻi. However, 90% of food in Hawaiʻi
is imported and nearly 90% of locally-grown food is
exclusively sold through the tourism industry.
Hawaiʻi Island holds a suitable landscape, rich history,
and proud heritage of culturally-relevant food and
agricultural cultivation. However, agricultural pollution,
water distribution, reuse, and climate change are
projected to be key issues in sustaining proper resource
management and productive agricultural operations on
Hawaiʻi Island.
Sustaining the ʻāina waiwai Hawaiʻi Island is known for,
strategies include:
➢On-farm strategies for the reuse and recycling of
water
➢Creating partnerships between upstream and
downstream communities
➢Moku-scale watershed management for
planning
One Water Roadmap 32
One Water Arena for Action | (K)new One Water Arena for Action
Arena for Action #5
Social & Economic Inclusion
A sustainable water future requires that all people have
access to clean, safe, and affordable water and
wastewater service. There are vulnerable communities
that struggle with water contamination, affordability, and
inadequate infrastructure. Equitable and sustainable
water management can increase social and economic
inclusion. For example, utilities are deploying a range of
approaches to contribute to a more equitable
society—from low income assistance programs to
workforce development and inclusive contracting to the
leveraging of capital projects to foster neighborhood
revitalization. Community-based organizations that have
historically worked on issues such as affordable housing
and transportation are turning their attention to local
water concerns. A growing number of philanthropic
organizations are incorporating water into their portfolio
of investments to build a society and economy that works
for everyone.
Social & Economic Inclusion can be achieved through:
●Building a water safety net
●Leveraging water investments to generate
community benefits
●Fostering community resilience in the face of a
changing climate
●Enhancing community capacity to engage in
water planning and governance
Arena for Action #5
Social & Economic Empowerment
Social and economic inclusion implies efforts to engage
communities in a passive or reactive manner. Moving
beyond just inclusion, empowering communities means
creating partnerships with communities, developing
projects alongside communities, and creating pathways
for their economic well-being. On Hawai‘i island, there
are communities that have limited or no access to
adequate water supply or sanitation systems. As many as
50,000 households use cesspools, which flows into
drinking water wells, streams and the ocean, harming
public health and the environment. Meanwhile, an
estimated 30,000 to 60,000 households in Hawai‘i use
water catchment systems, with most of them in the
Puna, Ka‘ū, and Hāmākua districts. These unregulated
systems are difficult to monitor for health and safety
concerns. While there are efforts to improve or upgrade
particular systems, such as cesspools, the costs to
upgrade such systems are often out of reach. In addition,
some communities have not been meaningfully engaged
in issues regarding water access, management, and
affordability for their communities.
Social & Economic Empowerment can be achieved
through:
➢Ensuring access to water to all communities
➢Partnering with communities on projects to
generate community benefits
➢Facilitating community resilience projects in the
face of a changing climate
➢Working with communities to engage in water
planning and governance
One Water Roadmap 33
One Water Arena for Action | (K)new One Water Arena for Action
Arena for Action #6
Healthy Waterways
Healthy waterways are vital in sustaining life for human
populations and natural ecosystems, providing benefits
far beyond what we take from them. However, industrial
development and human impacts continue to deal
environmental and ecological damage to our nation’s
waterways. To remedy these issues, innovative solutions
and partnerships aim to ensure purity and abundance for
both natural and human-centric needs.
Strategies for achieving Healthy Waterways include:
●Maximizing natural infrastructure for healthy
ecosystems mitigating the effects of drought,
water flow and sediment discharge.
●Managing groundwater for the future.
Recognize that groundwater isn’t limitless,
considering drought and climate change in
pumping scenarios, investing in large-scale reuse
and replenishment efforts
●Protecting forests to protect water to provide
pollutant, sediment, and stormwater filtration,
runoff reduction, improve water quality and
protect stream health.
●Utilizing citizen science for ecosystem
monitoring and watershed restoration. Citizens
are “early warning systems,” forge alliances and
galvanize support.
Arena for Action #6
Hawaiʻi nui kuauli
Uli is the deep, dark color in the natural ecosystem
representative of warmth, health, and abundance.
Ranging from green to blue to red, uli thrives in the
tangled growths of forests, in coursing waterways, in the
depths of the sea, and in our bodies.
Hawaiʻi nui kuauli reaffirms health as the backbone of
our wellbeing. Rooted in the reciprocal relationship of
care between kānaka and akua, Hawaiʻi nui kuauli
ensures the balance and perpetuity of health,
stewardship, and waiwai for all living things. The
stewardship of nature-nature, nature-human and
human-human relationships are paramount to the
perpetuation of uli for generations to come. Hawaiʻi nui
kuauli is the optimal goal for our wai, our ʻāina, and our
people.
Strategies for promoting and maintaining uli include:
➢Respecting wai as akua; bearing in mind that
water is for all and cannot be “owned”.
➢Incorporating/empowering kanaka ʻōiwi
knowledge, understanding, and management of
water
➢Tying water management frameworks into land
use and coastal zone planning
➢Implementing water management practices at
the ahupuaʻa-, moku-, and watershed-level
➢Conducting comprehensive studies on the
interconnectivity and availability of wai
mauka-makai, above and below ground.
One Water Roadmap 34
Alternative Analysis / Recommendations
Recommendation Themes -
Stakeholder recommendations were reviewed and coded by the (K)new One Water Arenas for Action.The six
themes that emerged are:Collaboration,Funding,Infrastructure,Planning Process,Policy &Regulation,and
Research &Data.Tables were created for each theme and recommendations were ranked.The images of pewa (patch or wedge for
repair)were chosen to represent the six themes.Pewa not only repair,but reinforce and strengthen the item they are repairing,much
like we are achieving with One Water.
Priority and Feasibility -
Each recommendation was ranked based on priority and feasibility on a low-high scale.The feasibility of a recommendation was ranked
given the cost,implementation time,and availability of technology and resources needed for implementation.The priority of a
recommendation was ranked given the overall benefit in addressing the recommendation,level of desire/need,and who would be
affected by the recommendation.An “overarching”rank was also given to recommendations identified as currently non-implementable
but practical ideas that require continuous consideration.
For the purpose of this report it is important to note that these rankings are subjective relative to the scale we created as a team
specifically for this project.Rankings have been created utilizing our group’s knowledge of these issues given our research and data
collection processes We would therefore recommend that the client complete a more detailed feasibility analysis to accurately identify
which recommendations would be more implementable for the short- and long-term in Hawaiʻi County.
One Water Roadmap 35
Stakeholder Recommendation Tables
One Water Roadmap 36
22 https://climatejusticealliance.org/just-transition/
One Water Roadmap 37
Moving Forward
Through this collaborative undertaking, our team has reframed and catalyzed the One Water process to
bridge indigenous, cultural, and place-based gaps in a nationally successful framework for integrated
water management. In planning for the abundance, health, and wellbeing of Hawaiʻi, the following strategies look towards the building
of a future steeped in waiwai.
Water resource management in Hawaiʻi County has a strong engineering focus, and, in order to manage water holistically, water
resource management needs to include a justice/equity, Native Hawaiian, and environmental standpoints. This requires a management
process that encourages the inclusion of indigenous and local knowledge, scientific or expert knowledge, and strategic knowledge as well
as collaboration amongst diverse stakeholders.
Additional studies in understanding water resources are
needed to implement a holistic approach for future
water security. For instance, there is a dire need for
more information to determine “safe” and accurate
sustainable yields. This includes calculating
groundwater withdrawals from small capacity wells and
determining the impacts of climate change. There is a
lack of information on the effects climate change has on
the regularity of trade winds and their steady supply of
rainfall to the Hawaiian Islands. Further studies to
address these gaps in information would support
holistic understandings and Best Management Practices
(BMPs) for Hawaiʻi County.
One goal highlighted in the General Plan is to “protect and effectively manage Hawaiʻi’s open space,watersheds,shoreline,and natural
areas”through “a coordinated effort by County,State and private interests”(General Plan 11.2.2 f).Furthermore,various Community
Development Plans mirror these goals of the General Plan.For instance,the Kaʻū CDP states a goal to “Protect,preserve,and effectively
manage forests,watersheds,shoreline areas,natural areas,and rare or endangered species and their habitats”through collaborative
efforts between federal,state,and county agencies as well as watershed partnerships.All of these initiatives align with the Public Trust,
which is the piko of effective and equitable management for Hawaiʻi County.
➢Continue stakeholder dialogue to seek additional input from private, watershed partners, and communities
➢Develop comprehensive studies to accurately assess current water resources
➢Acknowledge and incorporate collaborative/citizen science
➢Incorporate Participatory and Indigenous Models for Planning
➢Utilize “Catalyst Projects” by engaging with local initiatives
➢Illuminate more “low-hanging fruit” (highly achievable/easily implementable actions)
➢Develop a feasibility analysis for recommendations and ranking criteria for prioritization
➢“Keep an eye” on Bill 65 (recently passed) which mandates One Water for the City and County of Honolulu (CCoH)
○CCoH focuses on climate change and SLR. What is Hawaiʻi County’s focus for One Water?
➢Do not consider large shifts in mindset to be too idealistic.Instead,consider Public Trust and equity to be pillars for a future that
we are collectively building
We offer this report and accompanying materials to be secondary to the main deliverable –the process.Our process and methodology
constitute much of the work and consideration for relationships relating to akua,water,land,and community.We believe that this work
should continue,and more time be dedicated to elevating the voices of water managers,water champions,stewards,and experts.
Considerations for and implementation of participatory and indigenous models of planning,research,and Just Transitions22 requires
communication and engagement that go beyond what many agencies and managers are accustomed to.However,it is important if we
expect to learn from each other,partner on just policy development,develop lasting advocacy positions,and work together to advance
integrated water resource management for an uncertain climate future.
Appendix A: List of Stakeholders
One Water Roadmap 38
STAKEHOLDER SECTOR
Applied Life Sciences LLC Private
Hawaiʻi County Department of Water Supply Public - County
Hawaiʻi County Department of Environmental
Management
Public - County
Hawaiʻi County Fire Department Public - County
Hawaiʻi County Planning Department Public - County
Honolulu Board of Water Supply Public - County
Kamehameha Schools Private
Ka Huli Ao Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian
Law
Public - Education
Kohala Watershed Partnership (+Kohala Institute) Private
Lanihau Properties Private
National Park Service: Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National
Park
Public - Federal
One World One Water LLC Private
Sea Grant College Program (University of Hawaiʻi) Public - Education
State of Hawaiʻi Department of Health - Safe Drinking
Water Branch
Public - State
State of Hawaiʻi DLNR: Commission of Water Resource
Management
Public - State
State of Hawaiʻi Land Use Commission Public - State
State of Hawaiʻi Office of Planning Public - State
Appendix B: Talk Story Guide
One Water Roadmap 39
STAKEHOLDER TALK STORY GUIDE
Desired Outputs:
1.Understand how agencies perceive their kuleana to the Public Trust, including how their agency
honors/implements that kuleana
2.Identify specific actions that would help build more collaborative efforts between their agencies and the
other agencies
Questions:
1.In regards to water management, what are the main goals and responsibilities of your agency? What
laws/statutes dictate these goals/responsibilities?
2.How does the agency engage in the process of fulfilling these responsibilities?
3.What are the triggers that activate your jurisdictionʻs/agencyʻs management response?
4.How is your agency collaborating with other agencies in managing Hawaiʻiʻs water resources?
5.What are some of the primary challenges your agency/department faces in collaboration/managing
water on Hawaiʻi island?
6.Is there anything else you would like to share?
7.Do you have any suggestions for who else we should contact?
Appendix C: Agency Flowchart
See attached PDF entitled “Appendix Additions” for higher resolution documentation
One Water Roadmap 40
Appendix D: Agency Overview
See attached PDF entitled “Appendix Additions” for higher resolution documentation
One Water Roadmap 41
Appendix E:Matrix of Management Perspectives—Traditional,
Public Trust, and One Water
One Water Roadmap 42
Concept Traditional Resource
Management Public Trust One Water Integrated
Examples
Wai
Is a public trust resource in
which no one – not even ali‘i – could own. Water was a
resource managed for present
and future generations
Applies to all water
resources. Dual
mandate of 1)
protection and 2) maximum reasonable
and beneficial use
All water is one water. It
is our world’s most precious resource and
essential to everything
we do.
Ola i ka wai!
Water is life!
Centering Public Trust in all water-related
discussions & decisions
ʻĀina
Native Hawaiians are genealogically connected to
ʻāina as both the ancestral
homeland and the elder
sibling.
Applies to all natural resources of the State
Identifying and connecting important
land-use policies and development to smart
land use planning, flood
protection, coastal
protection, and strengthening water
infrastructure.
Proactive water & land management in the face
of climate change
Determining water
availability before
determining land use
Water
Management
Native Hawaiians have
physical, spiritual,
genealogical, and
sociopolitical/historical ties that define resources as
something to be cared for
Affirmative duty to take
the Public Trust into
account in planning and allocation of natural
resources, and to
protect Public Trust uses
whenever feasible.
Systems approach;
scalable solutions;
inclusion;
watershed-scale action; partnerships; multiple
benefits
Ahupuaʻa, moku, &
watershed-level stewardship
Encouraging new
technology & innovative solutions
Land Tenure
Land divisions (e.g. moku, okana, ahupuaʻa, wahi, ʻili
ʻāina, kuleana, etc.) were
often delineated by water and
contained adequate resources necessary for sustenance
Smart land use planning, flood and
coastal protection,
strengthening and
diversifying water infrastructure
Understand
mauka-makai
interconnectivity of wai
Encouraging
development & use of
accurate water data
Law &
Governance
Traditional Hawaiian law or kānāwai developed around
the management and use of
freshwater; makahiki and the
contribution of abundance, kapu
Presumption in favor of
trust purposes; burden
on state and commercial
parties to justify use.
Breaking down siloed and disjointed
management structures
that hinder effective
integrated water management
Codifying effective
agency collaboration
Burden of Public Trust is on government agencies & developer
Develop public-private
partnerships
Community
Mauka-makai trade; mutual support; interdependence;
moku system divided into
social-ecological regions
Protected "trust
purposes" include:
resource protection,
Native Hawaiian rights and practices,
appurtenant, correlative
and domestic rights
Engagement,
Representation,
Integration of
community knowledge into planning process
Equitable access for all
under the Public Trust
Empower diverse
communities in water
governance
Appendix F:(K)new Arenas for Action—Piko of Public Trust,
Streams of Equity, Landscapes of Pilina
One Water Roadmap 43
Appendix G: Stakeholder Recommendation Tables
See attached PDF entitled “Appendix Additions” for higher resolution documentation
One Water Roadmap 44
Appendix H: Maps
Map 1: Moku of Hawaiʻi Island with Digital Elevation.
One Water Roadmap 45
Map 2: Streams of Hawaiʻi Island
One Water Roadmap 46
Map 3: Ahupuaʻa of Hawaiʻi Island
One Water Roadmap 47
Map 4: Hawaiʻi Island Aquifers.
One Water Roadmap 48
Map 5: Hawaiʻi Island Watershed Boundaries and Private Partnerships
One Water Roadmap 49
Map 6: Hawaiʻi Island Population
One Water Roadmap 50
Map 7: Hawaiʻi Island County Council Districts
One Water Roadmap 51
Map 8: Hawaiʻi Island Large Landowners
One Water Roadmap 52
Map 9: Hawaiʻi Island On-Site Disposal Systems
One Water Roadmap 53
Map 10:Hawaiʻi County Water Systems and Service Areas Map.Water Use and Development Plan Update,2010.Overlaid with Hawaiian
Homeland areas. Census, 2015.
One Water Roadmap 54
References
City of Denver One Water Plan, October 2020.
https://www.denvergov.org/content/denvergov/en/transportation-infrastructure/programs-services/one-water.html
County of Hawaii Community Development Plans. 2020. https://www.hawaiicountycdp.info/
County of Hawaii General Plan. 2005.
https://www.planning.hawaiicounty.gov/big-island-vision/community-planning/general-plan/2005-plan
County of Hawaii General Plan 2040 (DRAFT). 2020.
https://www.planning.hawaiicounty.gov/big-island-vision/community-planning/general-plan/draft-gp-2040
Fenwick, T., Seville, E., Brunsdon, D. (2009) Reducing the Impact of Organisational Silos on Resilience: A Report on the impact of silos on
resilience and how the impacts might be reduced. 28pp..
Froy, Francesca, et al. ”Breaking Out of Policy Silos: Doing More with Less.” Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and
Development/Organisation de Cooperation et de Développement Economiques, Nov 2010, 140 Pp, 1 Nov. 2010,
http://search.proquest.com/docview/856399561/.
Gil-Garcia, J., and J. Gil-Garcia. “Towards a Smart State? Inter-Agency Collaboration, Information Integration, and Beyond.” Information
Polity, vol. 17, no. 3-4, Jan. 2012, pp. 269–80, doi:10.3233/IP-2012-000287.
Gonschor, L., & Beamer, K. (2015). Toward an Inventory of Ahupua ‘ a in the Hawaiian Kingdom : A survey of Nineteenth-and early
Twentieth-Century Cartographic and Archival Records of the Island of Hawai ‘ i lorenz gonschor kamanamaikalani beamer
Grim, John A. (2006). "Indigenous Traditions - Religion and Ecology". In Gottlieb, Roger S. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Religion and
Ecology. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. 286–306. ISBN 9780195178722. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
Hawaiʻi Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Commission. 2017. Hawaiʻi Sea Level Rise Vulnerability and Adaptation Report. Prepared
by Tetra Tech, Inc. and the State of Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources, Office of Conservation and Coastal Lands, under the
State of Hawaiʻi Department of Land and Natural Resources Contract No: 64064.
HAW. CONST. art. XI, § 1. See https://lrb.hawaii.gov/constitution#articlexi
HAW. CONST. art. XI, § 7. See https://lrb.hawaii.gov/constitution#articlexi
Kagawa, Aurora K., and Peter M. Vitousek. “The Ahupua‘a of Puanui: A Resource for Understanding Hawaiian Rain-Fed
Agriculture.” Pacific Science 66, no. 2 (April 2012): 161–72. https://doi.org/10.2984/66.2.6.
Kealiikanakaoleohaililani, K., & Giardina, C.P. (2015). Embracing the sacred: an indigenous framework for tomorrow’s sustainability science.
Sustainability Science, 11, 57-67.
Keener, V., D. Helweg, S. Asam, S. Balwani, M. Burkett, C. Fletcher, T. Giambelluca, Z. Grecni, M. Nobrega-Olivera, J. Polovina, and G.
Tribble, 2018: Hawaii and U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands. In Impacts, Risks, and Adaptation in the United States: Fourth National Climate
Assessment, Volume II [Reidmiller, D.R., C.W. Avery, D.R. Easterling, K.E. Kunkel, K.L.M. Lewis, T.K. Maycock, and B.C. Stewart (eds.)]. U.S.
Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, pp. 1242–1308. doi: 10.7930/NCA4.2018.CH27,
https://nca2018.globalchange.gov/chapter/Hawaiipacific/.
Liliuokalani. The Kumulipo : an Hawaiian Creation Myth. Pueo Press, 1979. https://www.sacred-texts.com/pac/ku/ku31.htm
Macomber, Patricia. Guidelines on Rainwater Catchment Systems for Hawai‘i. University of Hawaii Sea Grant College Program. 2010.
https://seagrant.soest.hawaii.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/rainwater-catchment-hi_guidelines_2010.pdf
One Water Roadmap 55
Mueller-Dombois, Dieter. “The Hawaiian Ahupua‘a Land Use System: Its Biological Resource Zones and the Challenge for Silvicultural
Restoration,” n.d., 11.
One World One Water LLC for the City & County of Honolulu. “One Water for Climate Resiliency: A White Paper.” 2020.
https://resilientoahu.org/climate-change-commission/#guidance
San Francisco Public Utilities Commission. 2020. https://sfwater.org/index.aspx?page=167
Sproat, Kapua, D. “An Indigenous People’s Right to Environmental Self-Determination: Native Hawaiians and the Struggle Against Climate
Change Devastation,” 2016, 51.
Sproat, D. Kapua’ala. “Wai through Kanawai: Water for Hawai’i’s Streams and Justice for Hawaiian Communities. (Changing Conceptions of
Water in the Law).” Marquette Law Review, vol. 95, no. 1, Marquette University Law School, Sept. 2011.
State of Hawaii Department of Health. Cesspools in Hawaii. https://health.hawaii.gov/wastewater/cesspools/
State of Hawaii Office of Planning. Hawaii 2050 Sustainability Plan. 2008. http://planning.hawaii.gov/sustainability/hawaii2050/
United States Geological Survey (USGS). Volcanic aquifers of Hawai‘i—Hydrogeology, water budgets, and conceptual models. Scientific
Investigations Report 2015-5164. https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/sir20155164
Urban Sustainability Directors Network. Equity in Sustainability: An Equity Scan of Local Government Sustainability Programs. Urban
Sustainability Directors Network. 2014. https://www.usdn.org/uploads/cms/documents/usdn_equity_scan_sept_2014_final.pdf .
US Water Alliance. One Water Roadmap. US Water Alliance, 2016. www.uswateralliance.org
Winter, Kawika, Kamanamaikalani Beamer, Mehana Vaughan, Alan Friedlander, Mike Kido, A. Whitehead, Malia Akutagawa, Natalie
Kurashima, Matthew Lucas, and Ben Nyberg. “The Moku System: Managing Biocultural Resources for Abundance within Social-Ecological
Regions in Hawaiʻi.” Sustainability 10, no. 10 (October 4, 2018): 3554. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103554.
One Water Roadmap 56