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<br /> Greenhouse Gas Reduction and Climate Adaptation Actions to OEM
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<br /> evaporation which can increase tree mortality and therefore contributing to forest decline." Species in
<br /> Hawaii are most vulnerable when they are also threatened by habitat loss and invasive species.72
<br /> Increased temperature places greater demand on energy systems.
<br /> Increasing air temperature places greater demand on energy consumption. Increased use of air
<br /> conditioners will be necessary for organizations that serve vulnerable populations, such as hospitals
<br /> and schools. Additionally, technology like data servers require immense amounts of cooling, which will
<br /> increase energy demand as temperatures and technology use rise. Disasters from climate change can
<br /> also increase energy demand, as power sources go out and need to be replaced with fossil fuel.73
<br /> Heightened energy demand further increases greenhouse gas emissions, especially without renewable
<br /> and reliable energy sources.
<br /> A warmer ocean and more acidic ocean stresses coral reef ecosystems.
<br /> Decreasing ocean pH (ocean acidification) can damage coral reefs directly and indirectly from
<br /> increasing rainfall and runoff from sewage and chemicals application, including pesticides and
<br /> fertilizers. Increasing sea surface temperature, also associated with increasing storm intensity74 can
<br /> cause similar damage. This ultimately affects fish populations, the food web in marine ecosystems, and
<br /> the people who depend on them. Hawaii is impacted not only by global ocean acidification, but also
<br /> coastal acidification resulting from localized land-based pollution, such as runoff and cesspools.75
<br /> Coral bleaching may occur annually with increasing ocean temperature. Rising levels of carbon dioxide
<br /> dissolved in the ocean and the resulting increase in acidity changes the balance of minerals in the
<br /> water.76 Ocean acidification makes it more difficult for corals, some types of plankton, and other
<br /> creatures to produce calcium carbonate used to produce hard skeletons or shells, making it more
<br /> difficult for these animals to thrive and jeopardizing the health of the reef.
<br /> Cascade Exposure Analysis
<br /> Climate exposure analysis was based on a literature review. A geospatial analysis of climate exposure
<br /> and risk (as conducted for Climate Cascades 3, 4, and 5) was not conducted. Climate exposure and
<br /> risk analyses for air temperature should be conducted as described in the Limitations section.
<br /> 71 Brodribb,T.J., Powers, J., Cochard, H.and Choat, B. (2020). Hanging by a thread? Forests and drought. Science,368(6488),
<br /> pp.261-266.
<br /> 72 Lucas Fortini, Jonathan Price, James Jacobi,Adam Vorsino,Jeff Burgett, Kevin Brinck, Fred Amidon, Steve Miller, Sam
<br /> 'Ohukani'ohi'a Gon III, Gregory Koob, and Eben Paxton (2013)A Landscape-based assessment of climate change vulnerability for all
<br /> native hawaiian plants.Technical Report HCSU-044.
<br /> https://hilo.hawaii.edu/hcsu/documents/TR44_Fortini_plant_vulnerability_assessment.pdf
<br /> 73 Perera,A.T.D., Nik,V.M., Chen, D. et al. (2020)Quantifying the impacts of climate change and extreme climate events on energy
<br /> systems. NatEnergy5, 150-159. https://doi.org/10.1038/s4l560-020-0558-0
<br /> 74 Walsh, K.J., McBride, J.L., Klotzbach, P.J., Balachandran, S., Camargo, S.J., Holland, G., Knutson,T.R., Kossin,J.P., Lee,T.C.,
<br /> Sobel,A. and Sugi, M. (2016).Tropical cyclones and climate change.Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews:Climate Change, 7(1), pp.65-
<br /> 89.
<br /> 75 State of Hawai'i (2021). State of Hawai'i Ocean Acidification Action Plan 2021 —2031
<br /> https://dinr.hawaii.gov/dar/files/2021/09/State of Hawaii OA Action Plan.pdf
<br /> 76 EPA(2022). Climate Change Indicators: Ocean Acidity. https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-ocean-
<br /> acidity
<br /> Climate Cascade 2:Air and Sea Surface Temperature 47
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