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EXHIBIT A HISTORY OF WASMANNIA AUROPUNCTATA IN HAWAII 47 tion allows global invasion pathways of have been much more rapid. However, at this species to be accurately reconstructed least some of the multiple infestations de- (Foucaud et al. 2010).Thus,the origin of tected on Maui and Oahu are not linked to W.auropunctata in Hawaii can be attrib- the nursery trade in any way.For example, uted to W.auropunctata from Florida,as no links between the purchase of potted one population is a clonal subset of the plants and infestations in Nahiku, Huelo, other(Foucaud et al.2010).Further,there Waihee and Mililani could be found. is an unambiguous connection with the The majority of ant-infested agricul- nursery trade as the original vector, both tural commodities shipped between Ha- for the initial introduction and subsequent waii Island and other islands is detected early spread within Hawaii island. and prevented from arriving by means Potted plants are an ideal vehicle for of a thorough and careful system of the movement of this species.The spaces regulation and inspection implemented between the potting medium, plant roots by HDOA. Inspection systems are based and the wall of plant containers are on a risk-management approach that convenient nesting sites, and forms a utilize available resources to optimize moisture gradient that optimizes brood risk reduction. However, not all infested development(Holldobler and Wilson 1990 commodities are (or can be) detected at p374).W.auropunctata colonies are small, the border. As W. auropunctata become interconnected and typically possess a increasingly ubiquitous on Hawaii island, worker:queen ratio between 250 and 500 the variety and proportion of infested (Ulloa-Chacon and Cherix 1990). This cargoes increases beyond simply"nursery virtually assures every plant within an plants" to include non-agricultural items infested nursery houses a viable W.auro- such as general cargo, household items punctata colony which can remain largely and vehicles. A percentage of infested undetected.Further,by their nature,plant plants and other non-regulated material nurseries are effective distribution points. will continue to arrive as a result of slip- Together, these factors contributed to the page (Whyte 2006)—infested goods that rapid spread of this species within Hawaii bypass regulated pathways,escape detec- Island, mirroring the historical spread of tion or are in commodity categories that this species through southern Florida via are not inspected. the movement of potted plants and balled By its very nature, slippage is difficult citrus seedlings (Spencer 1941). to quantify,and occurs in four commodity The pathways for movement of W. classes: those that bypass the biosecurity auropunctata between the Hawaiian system,false negatives (infested material islands have become more diverse as this inspected and cleared), commodities ex- species became increasingly ubiquitous. eluded from inspection and commodities After the initial discovery in 1999,HDOA that do not fall within the HDOA man- further regulated the movement of plants date (Government of Hawaii 1973). Not and propagative plant materials between all pathways are adequately regulated. islands. Regulatory intervention included Air passengers carrying plants and other a requirement for exporting nurseries to propagative material between islands are be certified by HDOA, or for each ship- not inspected due to a lack of resources. ment to neighbor islands to be inspected The rate of false negatives is likely to be before shipment. Without this increased very low, but remains largely unknown. watchfulness, the inter-island movement Hawaii Administrative Rules(Hawaii Ad- of W. auropunctata would undoubtedly ministrative Rules 2012)limit commodity